Can HFCS Increase the Size of Tumor Growth in Mice ?

 High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS) as the name suggests is obtained from corn, which contains starch made from a chain of glucose molecules joined together by  a chemical bond. To synthesize HFCS,enzymes are added,which converts some of  the glucose to Fructose. It usually exists in two forms known as H42 and H55, where the concentration of fructose molecules is varied. H42 is typically used in processed foods such as cereal, bars whereas H55 is used in soft drinks. THe difference between  HFCS and natural sucrose containing sugar such as honey, cane sugar is the existence of a chemical bond that joins the sucrose and fructose, making it easy to breakdown by gut enzymes.  Also sucrose molecules are made of fructose and glucose, which exists in a 1:1 ratio whereas the amount of fructose to glucose is high in HFCS.

As known from previous studies,it is found that the fructose that is taken stays in the liver and produces fatty acid and uric acid, which is the root cause for many diseases such as heart, diabetes, cancer and obesity. In addition to it, a new study reveals  that intake of HFCS can cause growth of intestinal tumors  in genetically modified mice, which were already designed to have existing tumors in their abdomen. These mice lacked the gene that can cause obesity and induce metabolic syndrome. To support the claim, a study using three groups of  genetically modified mice (APC -/-) were conducted. The first group of mice was referred as the Con group with no intake of HFCS, the second group were known as (HFCS) group with a 20% intake of HFCS using injection and the third group was referred as WB group, which were given unlimited dosage of HFCS mixed in bottle water. The experiment was carried out over a period of 8weeks, where initially it was observed that the mice in both the WB and HFCs groups were induced with obesity. In addition, the intake of HFCS in high amounts induced failure of metabolic function. In addition, as presented by the figure below, WB group had high obesity, fat mass and less fat free mass than the rest of the two groups. Moreover, the size of the tumor was also more, that is the number of tumors in 3mm  diameter was found to be less in the HFCSs group than the Con group.However, the number of tumors in both the groups stays the same as injected. Thus, it can be concluded that even though intake of HFCS can cause growth of the size of tumor but  there is no linkage of increasing the number of tumors in mice. In addition, further study has to be conducted to find whether it affects the human ways such as causing the abnormal size of tumor growth as it caused in mice.

Figure :- Strucutures of the Glucose, Fructose and Sucrose.

Figure 2:- Represents the BM,FM and FFM data for three sets of mice.

Figure 3:- Illustrates the Increasing Size of Tumor in Both Groups.

References

1)Center for Food Safety; Applied Nutrition. High fructose corn syrup questions and answers https://www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/high-fructose-corn-syrup-questions-and-answers (accessed Apr 25, 2021).

2) UC Davis Health, Public Affairs; Marketing. New study links combination of fructose, glucose in high fructose corn syrup to heart health risks https://health.ucdavis.edu/health-news/newsroom/-new-study-links-combination-of-fructose-glucose-in-high-fructose-corn-syrup-to-heart-health-risks/2020/09 (accessed Apr 26, 2021)

3) Goncalves, M. D.; Lu, C.; Tutnauer, J.; Hartman, T. E.; Hwang, S.-K.; Murphy, C. J.; Pauli, C.; Morris, R.; Taylor, S.; Bosch, K.; Yang, S.; Wang, Y.; Van Riper, J.; Lekaye, H. C.; Roper, J.; Kim, Y.; Chen, Q.; Gross, S. S.; Rhee, K. Y.; Cantley, L. C.; Yun, J. High-Fructose Corn Syrup Enhances Intestinal Tumor Growth in Mice. Science 2019, 363 (6433), 1345–1349

Reducing the Size of Polystyrene with an Impact

    Polystyrene is one of the most commonly used forms of plastics used in everyday materials in three predominant forms, traditional polystyrene that is typically used for impact resistance applications, polystyrene film used in packaging applications and polystyrene foam predominantly used in everyday items. Polystyrene foam has impacted the environment the most of these three since it tends to be used in single use applications where it becomes immediately thrown away once used. The reason for this is due to the fact there are no current ways of breaking down polystyrene that are competitive in costs compared to the production of new polystyrene. As of this year though a few scientists at Ames Laboratory, in partnership with Clemson University, may have found a cost effective and environmentally friendly way of breaking down polystyrene.

    The process uses a mechanochemical process in the form of ball-milling to deconstruct polystyrene in a single step that can be performed at room temperature in ambient air as well as in the absence of harmful solvents. Ball-milling is the process by which metal ball bearings and material are agitated in an enclosed volume allowing for the collision between these ball bearings and material initializing a chemical reaction. The initial testing process was conducted with loading commercial polystyrene into a shaker mill along with milling ball sets that were either manufactured from hardened steel, tungsten carbide , or silicon nitride. The ball-to-material weight ratio was kept between 10:1 to 13:1 and the run time was kept to 12 an hour run time. The size of these ball bearings is much larger than that of the polystyrene chains which means when a polystyrene chain becomes sandwiched in between two colliding bearings, the collision creates an energetic than chemical reaction that breaks down these long chains into smaller chains of styrene. With a long period of time these smaller chains will eventually break down into single monomers of styrene. The batch which was processed in air showed that the ambient oxygen and metal bearings acted as co-catalysts to enable extraction of the monomeric styrene later on. Throughout the whole milling process the maximum temperature reached was 60℃ therefore confirming that thermal decomposition was not the reason for the breakdown of the polystyrene since polystyrene tends to break down at 325℃.

    The fragmented material has the possibility to be recycled in the form of new polystyrene material which would reduce the total carbon emissions released into the environment from the production of new polystyrene. This process has yet to be proven at a large scale which would be needed in order for this practice to be adopted in the commercial field determining whether this process is feasible for a real world recycling method of polystyrene. 

Sources:

1. Mraz, Stephen J. “Please Enable Cookies.” StackPath, 23 Mar. 2021, www.machinedesign.com/leaders/materials/article/21158993/a-new-way-to-break-down-polystyrene-and-clean-up-the-environment.

2. “Scientists Discover Ways to Break down Polystyrene Waste.” Yahoo!, Yahoo!, 20 Mar. 2021, in.style.yahoo.com/scientists-discover-ways-break-down-120715259.html. 

3. Balema, Viktor P, et al. “Depolymerization of Polystyrene Under Ambient Conditions.” New Journal of Chemistry, vol. 45, no. 6, 2021, pp. 2935–2938., doi:10.1039/D0NJ05984F.

Finding Solutions to Large Problems in Small Places: An Anecdote on Seagrass

A recent article featured in Forbes Magazine discussed a potential solution to the acidification of the oceans. A portion of the carbon dioxide emitted by humans is continuously dissolved into the ocean, harming oceanic animals. These high levels of carbon dioxide in the oceans decrease the overall pH of the waters as CO₂ gets converted to carbonic acid. Oysters and snails, for example, are more impacted than others since they are shell-building animals that require carbonate to help maintain and grow their shells. The coral reefs are also impacted since they also use carbonate to form their white skeletons. The levels of carbonate, being a base, is being reduced by the overall increase in the acidity of the oceans. If the acidity of the ocean increases too much, the shells of animals, as well as coral reef skeletons will be dissolved.

Luckily, there may be a solution. A study was done by University of California, Davis, in the Bodega Marina Laboratory, has given sufficient evidence on how underwater grasslands may create safe zones for marine life who are vulnerable to the destructive effects of ocean acidification. Underwater vegetation, like seagrass and kelp, works similarly to trees on land since they generate their nutritional needs through photosynthesis. This process removes excess carbon dioxide from the environment, as the vegetation absorbs it. The study that was done involved observing seven seagrass beds along Northern California over the course of 6 years. During these six years, sensors, put both in the seagrass beds and outside the seagrass, were used to monitor the acidity of the seawater. The results of this study found that seawater within these seagrass meadows was 30% less acidic than seawater without seagrass. Their results also demonstrated that seagrass ecosystems can sustain prolonged periods of elevated seawater pH, which is important because for seagrass to be a viable option it needs to maintain lower acidity levels in the oceans for a long period of time. The difference in pH between the sensors in the seagrass and the sensors in the non-vegetated areas can be seen in the figure below.

Adding seagrass into the ocean or restoring the seagrass that is already present is challenging and expensive, but there are big implications to its use. Seagrass is home to many animals, like Dungeness Crab and oysters, which are sources of income for fishing communities and the fishing industry. So, seagrass can benefit both these animals that thrive in the ecosystems made by the seagrass as well as the fishing community that relies on this animal for income. Unfortunately, one-third of the world’s seagrass has been destroyed in the twentieth century by human activity: pollution has affected seagrass by reducing the amount of light that reaches the bottom of the ocean, reducing the seagrass’s ability to participate in photosynthesis. Another issue that affects seagrass is boats since anchors on boats are dragged across the seafloor and if seagrass lies in its way, it too will be destroyed. The destruction of seagrass is two-fold as it both eliminates an important component in removing excess carbon dioxide in the ocean and whenever seagrass dies it releases carbon dioxide back into the ocean. Those obstacles can and have been overcome, though, as Virginia’s Chesapeake Bay has been able to restore 9,000 acres of seagrass. Soon other coastal communities will be attempting to do the same.

References:

https://www.forbes.com/sites/allenelizabeth/2021/04/12/scientists-find-underwater-plants-can-combat-ocean-acidification/?sh=7b2af7215875

Ricart, A. M., Ward, M., Hill, T. M., Sanford, E., Kroeker, K. J., Takeshita, Y., Merolla, S., Shukla, P., Ninokawa, A. T., Elsmore, K., Gaylord, B. Coast-Wide Evidence of Low pH Amelioration By Seagrass Ecosystems. Global Change Biology 2021.

https://www.cruisingguides.com/seadogblog/sea-turtles

Doping In Sports Could Be Coming To An End

 

 

    Many athletes turn to performance-enhancing drugs to try to get an edge on the competition. However, drugs aren't the only thing athletes are turning to get an edge, some are using blood transfusions or blood doping. Blood doping is the misuse of certain methods or substances to increase red blood cell mass. Adding red blood cells allows the body to transport more oxygen to muscles and increases the endurance and performance of an athlete. This technique of cheating was put into the spotlight from the scandals involving Lance Armstrong. Methods of testing for plasticizers such as 2-Ethylhexyl phthalate that would come from a blood bag into the bloodstream, but there were many issues because plasticizers were found in lots of different objects like food packaging, toys, etc. all these could somehow leach into someone's body without them knowing. While at the same time different formulas for steroids were becoming harder and harder to differentiate in samples.

   The problems the World Anti-Doping Agency was facing were coming at them faster than they could handle.  “As quickly as we develop methods to look for performance-enhancing drugs, clandestine labs develop new substances that give athletes a competitive advantage” -Christopher Chouinard. However, Dr. Chouinard's team have been developing a new way of testing that can differentiate endogenous and exogenous steroids and can anticipate different compound structure that may appear in athletes urine samples. The current method uses mass spectrometry or gas chromatography, by breaking up molecules samples into different fragments and creating a spectrum that can reveal compounds, but this method makes it harder to differentiate molecules with slight structure differences especially isomers. The main issue is determining the differences between endogenous and exogenous steroids.

    Dr. Chouinard found a way to highlight those differences by pairing MS with the ion mobility spectrum. His team discovered that isomer differences could be even further distinguished if molecules in a sample were modified before IM-MS analysis by reacting samples with other compounds like acetone under the presence of ultraviolet light, which is a technique that many chemists who study lipid isomers use. According to his team, they have successfully used these reactions with IM-MS to improve isomer separations and identification of steroids. They also showed the method can characterize and identify banned glucocorticoids, such as cortisone, that improve athletic performance by suppressing inflammation from injuries. Detection limits are below one nanogram per ml. His team plans to reveal more of their finds at The researchers will present their results today at the spring meeting of the American Chemical Society (ACS). 

Sources: 

https://scitechdaily.com/outsmarting-cheaters-doping-by-athletes-tougher-to-hide-with-new-detection-method/

https://www.the-scientist.com/features/the-race-to-nab-cheating-athletes-66286

https://cdn.britannica.com/30/6530-004-798906B4/functions-vertebrates-steroid-hormones.jpg

Toxic Waste Ponds are Causing National Crisis

The New York Times wrote about how there are thousands of open-air waste ponds in America that are a risk to communities around them. There was recently an evacuation of homes near one of these ponds due to there being a possibility of contaminates making its way into this community in Florida’s drinking water. Theses open-air waste ponds are as large as a city block and hold byproducts of coal, animal excrement and radioactive “tailings”. These ponds are vital to many industries such as livestock and power generation, but they are starting to become hazardous due to poor maintenance and upkeep. Theses ponds have plastic lining to prevent the wastewater from seeping into ground water but there has been reports of rips in these linings. The ponds are also close to maximum capacity since production has been steady and the evaporation system that is commonly used is not able to keep up. There is also a lack of federal regulation on theses ponds, so the different ponds are regulated by state level policies making it less safe for these industries that use them.

These ponds consist of arsenic, lead, other heavy metals, and “Tailing” piles which come from phosphate mining. These come from the byproducts of coal usage, large scale farming and the formation of phosphoric acid used in fertilizers. These elements in the ponds are what cause them to be hazardous, especially with the climate change that is happening. Climate change is causing larger storms which in return is causing more water to be placed into these ponds which raises the possibility of them flooding and causing some real damage to the community and the environment. In the case of Florida, once the evacuation was cleared for people to go back to their homes there are still environmental effects. Due to the foreign nutrients that made it into the waterway from one of these waste ponds there will be harmful algae bloom which will lead to fish death affecting the ecosystem. In Florida this is where most of the “trailing” are concentrated but there are many more places that can be affected since there are 700 coal-ash ponds, countless animal excrement ponds and more “tailings” outside of Florida. These ponds were once seen as acceptable but now as industries keep growing to larger and larger scales there needs to be a better system in place to prevent these hazardous ponds from affecting communities and the environment.

There needs to be a better way to treat these ponds than what is in place now. The ponds have anaerobic bacteria in them which digest the some of the chemicals and animal waste and gives them a bubble gum pink hue. There is also an evaporation system to remove the water from the extra contaminants, but this system cannot keep up with the amount of production there is. There have been methods to treat the water of coal-ash ponds depending on the specific ponds and their requirements. There is an 8-step plan that treats the water from the waste pond to remove all contaminates in the water before discharging the clean water and disposing of the contaminants. This leads to the problem of what it costs to implement these systems affecting the company’s ability/desire to pay for this. There are also regulations in some states like North Carolina that are being put in place to help shut down these ponds by 2029 to prevent any more damage to the environments and human health. There needs to be more cost effective and safe way to help shut these ponds down for safety reasons and find an alternative use for these by products so we can start having a better affect on the environment.

Sources:

https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/06/climate/florida-ponds-toxic-waste.html

https://www.saltworkstech.com/articles/coal-ash-pond-water-treatment-technology-options/

Discovering a that a Mineral is Harder than a Traditional Diamond

 

    Cubic diamond has long been considered one of the hardest minerals to have been discovered. The structure contains only carbon with each carbon atom being bonded to four others in the lattice with carbon-carbon bonds being so strong, it is not surprising that cubic diamond is one of the hardest materials on the planet. Other naturally occurring materials, such as moissanite approach diamond’s hardness, but not quite. But diamond’s reign as the hardest material has come to a close as scientists have determined that that another mineral actually holds the title for being the hardest mineral.

            In a recent article in Forbes Magazine, which is based on a paper published in Physical Review B, a mineral known as lonsdaleite was found to be a harder material than the traditional cubic diamond. The mineral is more commonly known has hexagonal diamond, since it is also comprised only of carbon atoms, but instead crystallizes in a hexagonal instead of a cubic crystal system. It was long predicted by computational studies that this hexagonal diamond should be harder than traditional cubic diamond, but, as of yet, this theoretical finding could not be reconciled with experiment. Such conformation of hexagonal diamond’s physical properties remained difficult due to the rarity of the material: it was only found to be produced in meteorite impacts, and for short periods of times in a synthetic lab. That is until a team of research scientists at Washington State University’s Institute for Shock Physics synthesized the materials long enough to characterize and measured the properties of this hard mineral.

            Based on the study, lonsdaleite proved to indeed be stiffer and stronger than regular diamonds that are ubiquitous today. But how was this rare mineral synthesized? The hexagonal diamond was made through impact chemistry/physics where gunpowder and compressed gas was used to fire graphite disks at 15,000 miles per hour towards a transparent material. The impact rapidly changed the graphite into the hexagonal form of diamond. Following this, the materials physical properties were measured through the use of lasers and sound. Since sound travels faster in stiffer materials, its stiffness could be measured. Based on their measurements, it was proved that indeed hexagonal diamonds are indeed stiffer than their cubic counterpart, and, since stiffness correlates to hardness, they are also harder.

            Such a material has a wide range of industrial applications, like in diamond saws and drill bits for instance, but with the existence of hexagonal diamonds being only for short periods of time, implementation is obviously not possible. However, as the science continues to advance, the presence of another form of diamond could become as universal as cubic diamonds is in today’s culture. This study not only provides evidence of chemists and physicists continuing to make extraordinary findings in the realm of materials, but also the ability of scientists to continually push the boundaries of current understanding.

References: 

https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2021/03/31/scientists-create-crystal-stronger-than-diamond/?sh=a244fd53d89c

Volz, T.; Gupta, Y. Elastic Moduli Of Hexagonal Diamond And Cubic Diamond Formed Under Shock Compression. Physical Review B 2021, 103 (10).

Bundy, F.; Kasper, J. Hexagonal Diamond—A New Form Of Carbon. The Journal of Chemical Physics 1967, 46 (9), 3437-3446.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series A: Mathematical and Physical and Engineering Sciences (1913) 33, (*) (p. 277-277)

Combating Plastic Pollution on the Microscopic Level

             Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a type of plastic that is one of the most widely used plastics in the world. It is used in things such as running shirts, carpet fibers, curtains, solar panels, tennis balls, microwavable containers, and plastic bottles. The PET Resin Association says, “Virtually all single-serving and 2-liter bottles of carbonated soft drinks and water sold in the U.S. are made from PET.” The plastic is very popular amongst manufacturers and with good reason! It is an extremely durable, lightweight, safe, and is 100% recyclable. However, the recycling rate for PET in the United States has been on a decline in 2019, residing at a low 27.9%. The un-recycled PET plastics that remain in the landfills are extremely problematic for the same reasons that make PET a preferred material. According to the World Wildlife Fund, those plastic bottles listed earlier could take about 450 years to decompose. These plastics are in turn, killing wildlife and polluting the world ecosystem.

This is the chemical structure of PET.

             Researchers at Reed College, located in Oregon, are working on ways to break down PET using certain combinations of bacteria. However, “[PET’s] long tough strands of ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid monomers, all tangled up together. These strands lend PET its durability; they also make it virtually impervious to biological reaction.” Professor Jay Mellies had previously examined bacteria, using only plastics as their source of nutrition, with some bacterial species remaining alive at the end of his experiments. He assumed that because plastic was their only nutritional source, they must be able to break down plastic in some way. He was then given a grant to further explore the use of bacteria to break down these PET’s. The students looked at numerous colonies and after 8 weeks of trials, one sample was found to be working quite well. The sample of 5 different strains of bacteria had consumed 3 percent of the plastic’s mass. Under further inspection of the sample, tiny holes where the bacteria had ate the plastic could be seen under a microscope. The bacteria had formed a symbiotic relationship where some were breaking down the plastics into new forms that each other could digest. 

             Looking at how the bacteria do this; they naturally produce hydrolases. These are enzymes that the bacteria produce and use to digest their food. These hydrolases work like scissors that cut the bacteria’s food into smaller counterparts that they can eat. Even though PET is much larger and more complex than anything the bacteria would normally consume, the theory is that the bacteria would be able to adapt and produce more efficient enzymes to break down the PET. 

Above is the reaction of an esterase (a type of hydrolase) and how it breaks down into smaller components.

             Further experimentation is still going on where they are looking to boost and speed of the generation of these hydrolases that can break down PET. The genetic pathways are not fully understood in this situation, but Professor Mellies is confident that new genetic techniques can solve their problems. This research will be extremely beneficial in the case of pollution, as well as furthering the use of symbiotic bacteria. 

 

Read the article here.

Sources:

https://www.reed.edu/reed-magazine/articles/2021/reed-biologists-plastic-eating-bacteria.html

http://www.petresin.org/news_introtoPET.asp

https://www.wwf.org.au/news/blogs/the-lifecycle-of-plastics#gs.xnq6tn