Finding an Extraterrestrial Vacation Destination

Why finding water is not the only hurdle

Finding life elsewhere in the universe might require considering more than one “Goldilocks zone.”

Elen11/iStock/Getty Images Plus

Space exploration has been a major focus of the scientific community ever since the first human was successfully put into space. Learning more about these planets, stars, and other celestial bodies has only grown the curiosity for what might exist in our universe. The biggest mystery that has yet to be solved is identifying a planet that could support human life in the ways that only Earth seems to be able to. 

For a planet to sustain life, certain elements are required to be a part of the planetary composition. The primary compound that researchers look for is water due to nature's dependence on water as a biological solvent and building block for all organisms. What many individuals tend to forget is that the human body is complex and contains many necessary elements that you wouldn't think to be required for survival. "A chemical 'goldilocks zone' may limit which planets can host life" published in Science News, dives into the two biggest secondary essential elements, Phosphorus and Nitrogen. 

While water is necessary for structure and function in biological systems, phosphorus and nitrogen play the vital role of composing the structure of genetic material and various proteins. The natural abundance of these two critical elements is balanced by the presence of oxygen due to how these three elements bind to iron, which is what many planet cores are made of. If more oxygen is present, iron in the mantle will bind with it, enabling more phosphorus in the mantle, but it carries nitrogen into the core. A reduction in oxygen reverses this effect, resulting in higher concentrations of nitrogen in the mantle and less phosphorus. Considering these two processes results in the "goldilocks zone", just the right amount of oxygen to keep ample amounts of both nitrogen and phosphorus available in the mantle for biological processes.

Many more elements are required for human survival, some that you would never think to consider. LibreTexts outlines in this table which elements are found in the bulk of biology, as well as macrominerals and trace elements.

Elements like magnesium are used as cofactors in over 300 enzymatic chemical reactions for energy production and protein synthesis, while calcium and phosphorus are the primary components of bone structures. Trace elements are less commonly found, but still just as important. Iron is the required metal center for heme groups that are found in blood and are responsible for oxygen transfer. The chemistry of life is far more complex than it would seem, and many factors would have to be considered when searching for a suitable planet for humans. Whether or not we ever discover a planet that checks all of these boxes remains a mystery, but that will not stop humanity from chasing the dream.

Primary Reference:

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/chemical-planets-core-life-oxygen

Supporting References:

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book%3A_General_Chemistry%3A_Principles_Patterns_and_Applications_(Averill)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Chemistry/1.09%3A_Essential_Elements_for_Life

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3341892/#:~:text=Bone%20is%20composed%20of%20various%20types%20of,as%20well%20as%20to%20form%20new%20bone.

https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Magnesium-HealthProfessional/#:~:text=This%20is%20a%20fact%20sheet,are%20kept%20under%20tight%20control.

Molecular Architecture or Magic?

 Metal-Organic Frameworks as the Future for Environmental Science

(Susumu Kitagawa, Richard Robson, and Omar Yaghi, CNN)

        Environmental concerns regarding climate change are at the forefront of science and our future, what if someone told you chemicals contributing to this phenomena could be grabbed right out of the air! Sounds pretty good right? As documented in the CNN article Nobel Prize in chemistry goes to scientist trio for Harry Potter-like work in molecular architecture, the 2025 Nobel laureates, Susumu Kitagawa, Richard Robson, and Omar Yaghi, have opened up many avenues for removing problematic chemicals, harvesting water from the air, and catalyzing reactions in a very unique way. 

        Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are carbon based crystalline structures created with a positively charged atom such as copper ions and a complementary chemical group attracted to said ions, for example a nitrile group. Making these structures with "arms" allows for the formation of cavities in which the amazing functionality of MOFs originates.

(Image from the official Nobel Prize X account)

        The uniquely created structure's cavities were first utilized in 1997 when Kitagawa made a breakthrough from developing a molecule that could not only absorb methane, nitrogen, and oxygen but also release it! Remarkably, Kim Jelfs, professor of chemistry at Imperial College London, said, "one gram of a MOF material can have the same surface area inside its pores as a football pitch", hence Heiner Linke, chair of the committee for chemistry, dubbing these compounds akin to "Hermione's handbag" from the Harry Potter novels. Additionally, these molecules have very impressive stability. Take MOF-5 for example, known a classic molecule in the field, that has Zn2+ nodes linked by benzene-1,4-dicarboxylate (BDC), which even as an empty structure can be heated to 300 degrees Celsius without collapsing! 

(MOF-5, image from Wikipedia).

        In terms of practical use, MOFs have already been used by Yaghi's research group to pull water from the desert air of Arizona. How does this happen? MOF's absorb compounds primarily through, van der Waals forces, electrostatic attractions, and hydrogen bonding to later be displaced out of the MOF via changes in pressure, temperature, pH, or by introducing more molecules to displace trapped compounds.

         Great hope is held in the many climate change and chemical reaction applications that could benefit from these compounds. Only time will tell what spells these magical compounds will cast to improve the world.

References: 

https://www.cnn.com/2025/10/08/science/nobel-prize-chemistry-intl

https://x.com/NobelPrize/status/1975861353907695717/photo/1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOF-5

Its not the chemicals – Its the knowledge Gap

Science illiteracy and the rise of Chemophobia

Chemophobia is the irrational fear of chemicals which leads people to believe chemicals are

harmful at any level.

Stereotypical outcomes of chemophobia are the general public fearing ingredients they cannot

pronounce, only wanting “natural ingredients”, or avoiding vaccines and other proven health

benefits due to lack of understanding. 30% of individuals report being scared of chemicals,

and nearly all demonstrate a lack of basic scientific understanding proving the clear link between chemical illiteracy and chemophobia. But chemicals are all around us.

The smartphones in our pockets, medicines we take, food we preserve and everyday products

all depend on synthetic chemistry. But Chemophobia isn't really about chemicals, It's about

how gaps in scientific literacy shapes public perception. 

Science literacy, particularly chemical literacy, remains low across much of the public. Only 28% of Americans are considered to have civic scientific literacy, and 44% of Europeans want to “live in a world where chemical substances don't exist”. This demonstrates a clear knowledge gap between scientists and the general public. With many people unable to explain basic concepts such as: toxicity, dose and the difference between hazard and risk; the opportunity for misinformation, fear-based marketing, and distorted risk perception becomes significantly greater. When individuals feel uninformed, they naturally rely on educated guesses, or heuristics, to make decisions. While these heuristics may work in everyday life, when applied to chemical substances many people make biased decisions. 

One of the most powerful assumptions is that “natural’” equates to safety, while “synthetic” products are dangerous or toxic. This is usually because “natural” evokes positive feelings such as purity, health and environment. In contrast, “chemicals” often trigger images of toxins, or pollution. But under scientific scrutiny, this distinction collapses. For example, people without scientific background fall susceptible to biased risk perception of cleaning products labeled as “eco”. Many individuals believe that eco drain cleaners are healthier and safer than regular drain cleaners when both products contain very similar ingredients and the same warning labels highlighting the perception of safety being more important than facts. From a toxicological perspective, the origin of a substance tells little about its safety and what matters is its dose, exposure, and biological interaction, not whether something came from a laboratory or a leaf. 

Additionally, it is widely believed that trace amounts of a substance perceived as harmful can lead people to judge a product as wholly dangerous. 91% of the survey did not realize that the concept of “toxicity” means the dose makes the poison for everything, regardless of the source and identity of a chemical and fewer than a quarter of survey respondents correctly agreed that a small amount of a toxic substance is not necessarily harmful. This stands in contrast to the foundational principle of toxicology that “the dose makes the poison” where even something as “safe” as bananas can become “poisonous” if you eat too much of them. 

Chemophobia, while driven from lack of scientific knowledge, has public consequences. The rise of the anti-vaccine movement, increase in cost of “natural” products and the increased spread of misinformation and fear about everyday products are all consequences of the rise of chemophobia. But evidence suggests that basic scientific understanding reduces extreme fear of chemicals. People who understand dose response relationships and recognize that “natural” and “synthetic” are not safety categories tend to show lower levels of chemophobia. Furthermore, education does not eliminate chemical concerns but refines it. 

To improve scientific literacy, science education should be strengthened at every level and public communication about risk, uncertainty and regulation in a digestible way for the public should be improved. The Royal Society of Chemistry reports that 58% of women and 45% of men not feeling confident enough to talk about chemistry demonstrating a systemic issue in the scientific knowledge gap rather than individual disinterest. If large portions of the public feel unequipped to engage in conversations about chemistry topics, it creates ground for misinformation, and fear-based narratives increasing the chances of chemophobia. The education of students about toxicological principles, especially the difference between hazard and risk as well as synthetic vs natural would help improve perceptions and eradicate chemophobia. 

Reference:

Siegrist, M., Bearth, A. Chemophobia in Europe and reasons for biased risk perceptions.

Nat. Chem. 11, 1071–1072 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41557-019-0377-8

Image:

‘Free From Sulfates, Phosphates, and Parabens’: What Is Chemophobia and How Is

It Tackled at ITMO | SCAMT

Playing God or Playing Smart? The Ethics of CRISPR

Should CRISPR be banned for use? In a piece from the Innovative Genomics Institute titled “CRISPR Ethics,” the institute outlines the major ethical questions surrounding CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) gene-editing technology. The article explains that CRISPR allows scientists to precisely modify DNA and holds great promise for treating genetic diseases. At the same time, it raises concerns about human germline editing, the possibility of “designer babies,” and the need for strong global oversight. At its core, CRISPR is a chemical system: the Cas9 enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphodiester bonds in DNA, allowing scientists to break and reform covalent bonds in the genome. China is mentioned in the context of a major ethical controversy: it describes how, in November 2018, a Chinese scientist, He Jiankui, announced the birth of twin girls whose embryos he had edited with CRISPR (editing the CCR5 gene to purportedly protect them from HIV infection). This action sparked international outcry and condemnation because it violated widely-accepted ethical norms and lacked proper oversight, and He was later sentenced to three years in prison — an event that highlighted the need for clear guidelines and oversight on human embryo editing.

                                            

CRISPR gene-editing systems function by directing Cas enzymes to a targeted location in the genome, where the enzymes make a precise cut in the DNA.   https://www.livescience.com/58790-crispr-explained.html

From a chemistry perspective, CRISPR operates at the molecular level. The Cas9 enzyme cuts DNA by breaking specific chemical bonds in the DNA backbone, relying on principles such as molecular structure, bonding interactions, and enzyme catalysis. The specificity of CRISPR depends on chemical base-pairing interactions between guide RNA and DNA, which are governed by hydrogen bonding and molecular geometry. The effectiveness and safety of CRISPR-based therapies also depend on chemically designed delivery systems that transport gene-editing components into cells. Although often categorized as biology, CRISPR is fundamentally applied molecular chemistry in living systems.

The article places the controversy in a broader social and regulatory context rather than presenting CRISPR as inherently dangerous. It distinguishes between therapeutic uses, such as correcting serious genetic disorders, and enhancement applications that raise deeper ethical concerns. In doing so, it avoids reinforcing chemophobia. Scientists are portrayed not as reckless experimenters, but as actively engaged in ethical reflection and global governance discussions. 

CRISPR-based therapies are advancing within established regulatory frameworks—particularly through the requirements of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and other global regulators, with early-stage trials (Phase I) focused on safety and dosing and later stages (Phases II and III) designed to generate the efficacy data needed for formal approval. It notes the historic first approval of a CRISPR-based medicine (Casgevy) for sickle cell disease and beta thalassemia, and discusses how financing and reimbursement arrangements (e.g., with state Medicaid programs and the UK’s NHS) are evolving as part of translating these approvals into real-world treatment access. The article also emphasizes that the first personalized CRISPR therapy, developed and delivered in six months, sets an important precedent for rapid regulatory pathways for “platform therapies” in the U.S., potentially shaping how future bespoke and on-demand gene-editing treatments are evaluated and cleared by regulators.

Overall, the article connects chemical principles to real-world medical innovation while also encouraging critical thinking about regulation, risk, and societal responsibility. Rather than promoting fear, it presents CRISPR as a powerful chemical technology that requires careful and informed oversight.

https://innovativegenomics.org/crisprpedia/crispr-ethics/#Introduction 

https://innovativegenomics.org/news/crispr-clinical-trials-2025/

Is Spicy a Taste or Pain?

Spicy Isn’t a Taste; It’s Chemistry (and a Little Self-Sabotage)

Source: The Guardian  “Why do people love spicy food, even when it hurts to eat it?” (Nov 10, 2025)
https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2025/nov/10/why-do-people-love-spicy-food-even-when-it-hurts-to-eat-it

Spicy food is one of the only times we voluntarily eat something and then immediately act like we regret every life decision, sweating, tearing up, and chugging water like it’s going to save us (spoiler: it usually doesn’t). But that “burn” isn’t actually a flavor like sweet or salty. It’s chemistry messing with your nervous system.

The article explains that “spicy” is not a normal taste. The burning sensation comes from capsaicin, a chemical in chili peppers that triggers heat- and pain-sensing nerves in your mouth. Your brain reads that signal as heat and irritation, which is why spicy food can cause sweating, tearing, and a burning sensation. The article also explains why many people still enjoy spicy food: with repeated exposure, the body can become less sensitive, and the brain can start treating the discomfort as “safe,” kind of like enjoying a roller coaster or a horror movie.

The Chemistry: Why It Burns

Capsaicin binds to TRPV1 receptors, which are proteins on nerve cells that normally detect dangerously high heat. When capsaicin binds, it activates the receptor and sends a signal that feels like burning, even if the food isn’t physically hot.

Why Water Doesn’t Help

Capsaicin is mostly nonpolar (hydrophobic) because it has a long hydrocarbon “tail.” Water is polar, so it doesn’t dissolve capsaicin well (“like dissolves like”). When you drink water, the capsaicin often doesn’t wash away; it can spread across your mouth and contact more TRPV1 receptors, which is why the burn can feel worse.

Why Milk Helps

Milk can interact with capsaicin much better than water. Casein proteins form structures called micelles (like tiny molecular “soap bubbles”) with hydrophobic regions that can trap capsaicin and help pull it off your mouth tissues, so less is left to activate TRPV1. If the milk has fat (whole milk, yogurt, ice cream), that helps too because capsaicin is fat-soluble, so it dissolves into the fat instead of staying stuck in your mouth. In short, milk helps remove capsaicin, while water mostly moves it around.

Resources

1. The Guardian. “Why do people love spicy food – even when it hurts to eat it?” (Nov 10, 2025).

https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2025/nov/10/why-do-people-love-spicy-food-even-when-it-hurts-to-eat-it

2. Penn State University (Research News). “Proteins in milk — not just fat — may help reduce oral burn from spicy food.” (Jan 31, 2024).

https://www.psu.edu/news/research/story/proteins-milk-not-just-fat-may-help-reduce-oral-burn-spicy-food

3. First picture: https://scitechdaily.com/dinner-too-spicy-scientists-discover-natural-anti-spice-compounds/

4. Second picture: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Capsaicin

5. Third picture: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Transduction-mechanism-by-which-capsaicin-activates-TRPV1_fig3_381575553

New Solar Fuel Boils Water in Half a Second

Can chemist bottle sunlight? In the continuing search for energy that does not rely on fossil

fuels solar energy remains a key focus. An active area of research in the solar energy field 

is in molecular solar thermal (MOST) energy storage. A MOST system absorbs UV light 

and stores it for release on demand at a later time. A MOST molecule absorbs sunlight and 

transforms it into a high energy isomer that traps energy in its chemical bonds. Then a trigger

is used to revert it to its original state, and this process releases heat.

A recent Science article reports an advance in renewable-energy chemistry. Researchers at 

UC Santa Barbara and UCLA have engineered a pyrimidone-based MOST molecule that 

can store sunlight for up to three years. What is remarkable about this molecule is that it is 

water-soluble and stores 1.65 MJ/kg of stored energy, the most of any MOST compound 

to date. This is more than a lithium-ion battery. The new compound, when triggered by an 

acid catalyst, released enough energy to boil approximately a half milliliter of water in 

half a second.

This MOST system was inspired by the structure of DNA whose bases absorb UV light and 

form pyrimidones. The researchers engineered a new molecule by adding methyl groups to 

the hexagonal ring of one of these pyrimidones. The UV light is absorbed by the molecule 

and creates a new bond that forms two square units from the hexagon. When acid is used to 

break the bond, the isomer returns to the original shape and releases heat. The isomer that is 

created is called a Dewar-photoisomer, and its bonds are highly strained which allows it to 

store a large amount of energy. The system can be recharged with light and can be reused 

over and over again. The scientific community is excited about this advance because it 

appears scalable and is easy to synthesize. The water solubility opens up new possibilities 

for its uses. One drawback is that it takes a long time to charge, so extensions of the 

research should focus on charging it more rapidly.

Articles used: https://cen.acs.org/energy/solar-power/Engineered-molecule-stashes-enough-

sunlight/104/web/2026/02 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aec6413

The Flu Isn't What You Think It Is 

& Why You Should Get Your Vaccines Every Year

Image above is from:www.bcm.edu

            Something smaller than you can see has taken over a hundred million lives. It is an invisible killer. The flu is an amazing shapeshifter and has been here for generations and generations. Why get a vaccine? What is in a vaccine? What is the flu? Recent times has people scared to get vaccines but this article will set the record straight. 

            So what is the flu? Influenza, or "the flu," is a virus, meaning that is is a non-living vessel that has the genetic material inside its capsid or "shell" to replicate. The flu cannot replicate on its own and requires the host to replicate. The Flu is a respiratory infection that can spread from person to person via coughs or sneezes or even infected surfaces. 

        The flus that infect people are influenza type A and B. They are composed of eight segmented strands of RNA. These segments contain the instructions for making new viruses and are crucial for how they cause infection. In the picture above you can see these surface proteins labeled HA (hemagglutinin) and NA (neuraminidase). These spikes are what interact with your cells and are the main targets for fighting the virus.

           Influenza is always changing due to antigenic drift and shift. Drift is when small mutations happen in the virus's RNA over time. These alter the structure of the surface proteins mentioned above (HA and NA) slightly. These slight variations can drastically alter your bodies immune system to effectively fight the virus. Shift is when a major change happens. The segments of RNA swap genetic material and can create new types of viruses that our bodies have not seen before. This can lead to pandemics and fast spread of the flu. 

Image from: www.monash.edu

            Why get the vaccine each year? The flu strains are constantly circulating and changing year to year. Scientists and professionals monitor the changes happening in the flu and can track the individual RNA sequence changes in the virus. This is important because scientists are able to match the vaccine to what is going to be or most likely to be the strain that is most likely to infect people. Last year's immunity may not fully protect you for the next year, because the flu this season may be different from last year. Getting the current vaccine is important because they match it to what is going to infect you that year. It is designed for the incoming flu season, not for any other year but the current one based on the data they collect. 

            What is in the vaccine? While the flu vaccine does contain the virus, it contains an inactive or dead virus, so it's unlikely to make you sick. Other ingredients are present in vaccines. For example, formaldehyde is included to inactivate the viruses and bacteria that could contaminate the vaccine during production. While formaldehyde is toxic at high doses, the amounts in vaccines are harmless. Formaldehyde is also a product of digestive function. In some multi-dose vaccines, there is also thimerosal, used to prevent the growth of bacteria and fungi that could contaminate the vaccine. The vaccine also contains stabilizers like sugars or salts to help maintain the effectiveness during transport and storage, as well as preservatives to keep the vaccine safe and viable. Vaccines are always tested and are safe for the general population to consume. Medical professionals would not give the vaccine if it was not safe.

            Vaccines are safe! Not only are they safe, but they decrease your risk of getting sick and build your immunity while lowering the symptoms if you do get infected. The more people that take the vaccine, the more people are safe. Getting your vaccine should be a part of your general health routine, because they create a safer space for you and the people around you. Something that you can't see has shaped parts of human history, caused pandemics, and has evolved over time, year after year. The flu is not just a simple cold. It is a virus that adapts to survive, but science adapts too. Through research, monitoring, and vaccination, we have tools to reduce its impact and help humanity. 

Articles Used:

https://www.cdc.gov/flu/php/viruses/genetic-characterization.html

https://www.cdc.gov/flu/php/viruses/change.html

https://www.cdc.gov/flu/php/viruses/index.html

https://www.cdc.gov/flu/php/viruses/change.html

https://www.lung.org/blog/reasons-flu-shots

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/321207#ingredients