Pollution power? A new device turns carbon dioxide into fuel

     

Is it possible to turn carbon dioxide into fuel?

    We present another story in our series that focuses on technologies and actions that can slow down climate change, reduce its negative impacts, or help communities adapt to a rapidly changing world. Human activities that release carbon dioxide (CO2), a common greenhouse gas, are contributing to the warming of Earth's atmosphere. The concept of extracting CO2 from the air and storing it has been around for a while, but it's been challenging to implement, especially at an affordable cost. A new system aims to address the problem of CO2 pollution in a different way by chemically converting this climate-warming gas into a fuel.

    On Nov. 15, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge introduced their latest invention in Cell Reports Physical Science.  The MIT system is made up of two components. The first component produces the fuel by transforming airborne CO2 into a molecule called Formate salt. Similar to CO2, Formate contains a carbon atom and two oxygens. It also includes a hydrogen atom, and a Formate salt contains other elements as well. The research team used a variation of Formate salt that contains either sodium or potassium.

                         

       Formate salt                                                 Carbon dioxide        

                   

                                         

        Formate salt contains sodium                           Formate salt contains potassium

    The system's second part involves the utilization of a Formate salt for fueling a fuel cell, which then generates electricity. Typically, most fuel cells operate on hydrogen, which is a flammable gas that requires pipelines and pressurized tanks for transportation. However, Formate salts can also be used to power fuel cells. According to materials scientist Ju Li, who led the development of the new system, Formate salts contain the same amount of energy as hydrogen. Furthermore, Formate offers a few advantages over hydrogen, as it is safer and does not need to be stored at high pressure. The MIT researchers created a fuel cell to experiment with their CO2-derived Formate. Initially, they mixed the salt with water and then introduced the mixture into the fuel cell. Inside the cell, the Formate underwent a chemical reaction, releasing electrons. These electrons flowed from the fuel cell's negative side to its positive side, generating a circuit that resulted in electricity. In their experiment, the flowing electrons or electricity ran for 200 hours.

The role of CO2 in this experiment. 

    The researchers from MIT utilized chemical reactions to convert CO2 gas into a crucial component required to produce their fuel. Initially, they introduced it to an intense alkaline solution, specifically sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also referred to as lye. This led to a chemical change that gave rise to sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), a substance commonly known as baking soda.

    Afterward, an electric charge was applied. This caused a new chemical reaction to occur, which removed an oxygen atom from each molecule of baking soda. As a result, sodium Formate (NaCHO2) was produced. The process was highly efficient, with over 96 percent of the CO2's carbon being converted into this salt. The energy that was needed to remove the oxygen was stored in the chemical bonds of Formate. This energy can be stored for a long time without losing its potential power, according to Li. Later, when Formate is passed through a fuel cell, it can generate electricity. Furthermore, if the electricity used to produce the Formate was generated from solar, wind or hydropower, then the electricity produced by the fuel cell will be an environmentally-friendly form of energy. Li asserts that in order to expand the use of this innovative technology, it is crucial to locate ample geological reservoirs of lye. He is currently examining a form of rock known as alkali basalt (pronounced AL-kuh-lye buh-SALT), which, when combined with water, transforms into lye.

Future fuel

This illustration depicts a house that is powered by CO2. There is a device shown in the front that is capable of converting CO2 molecules, which appear as red-and-white-bubble molecules, into a Formate salt. The Formate appears as blue, red, white, and black bubbles. This salt can be utilized to generate electricity via a fuel cell.

    Kazemifar suggests that the most effective way to address the issue is to "reduce greenhouse gas emissions" by switching to renewable energy sources like wind or solar power. This process is referred to as decarbonization. However, he notes that a comprehensive approach is necessary to combat climate change. He explains that carbon capture technology, such as the one developed by the MIT team, is essential in areas that are difficult to decarbonize, such as steel and cement plants. Additionally, the MIT group believes that combining their new technology with solar and wind power would be advantageous. Unlike traditional batteries that store energy for a few weeks, the Formate fuel can be used to store energy from the summer sun until winter or even longer. Li explains that the possibilities with Formate fuel are endless, as it can be used for generations. Moreover, Li points out that although it may not be as flashy as gold, he can still leave his children a substantial inheritance in the form of 200 tons of Formate.

References

Allen, L. (2024) Pollution Power? A new device turns carbon dioxide into fuel, Science News Explores. Available at: https://www.snexplores.org/article/device-turns-carbon-dioxide-fuel-chemistry.

 

      

Artificial Cells: A Cytoskeleton-key to Genetics

       The ability to change one's DNA is often at the forefront of science fiction as the ultimate form of scientific innovation. The idea of being able to change the genetic makeup of one's self for health, aesthetic, or to push the limits of the human body is enchanting to many. There have been different methods by which this has been attempted with things like CRISPR/Cas9 wherein the cells and DNA are directly targeted and edited. However, research done by a group from UNC(University of North Carolina) and published in "Nature Chemistry" has found a way to make artificial cells that look and act like normal human cells.

    The group managed to achieve this by creating an artificial cytoskeleton through lab-made proteins and new "programmable peptide-DNA nanotechnology" using DNA as a structure for the cytoskeleton to bind peptides together with actin connectors/crosslinkers. These new cells are now more easily programmable than natural ones and more resilient, being able to be stable even in degrees up to 122°F, meaning they are capable of being made to handle far more specific functions than those in the body. Ronit Freeman who was a lead on the team said that their cells are "made to task" rather than "made to last" implying that their cells would adapt to new tasks when they finish their first. 

   

     The end goal of this sort of research is to be able to make materials or even the human body itself "surpass biology". This could help both people and other living organisms live in more hostile environments like deserts, volcanic regions, and potentially other planets. The current issues of these cells are that they are simpler than natural cells and more resistant to external change which can hurt adaptability that isn't pre-programmed. Another potentially scary thought is how far would these cells go to changing the body while unregulated, another fear brought up in many sci-fi stories. I think that this alongside other forms of cell and DNA editing is a fantastic leap to a new age of the potential of human evolution against the "Great Filter Theory" in the future.

Sources:

- Chapel Hill, University of UNC. “Researchers Create Artificial Cells That Act like Living Cells.” Phys.Org, Science X, 23 Apr. 2024, phys.org/news/2024-04-artificial-cells.html.

- Daly, Margaret L., et al. “Designer Peptide–DNA Cytoskeletons Regulate the Function of Synthetic Cells.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, 23 Apr. 2024, www.nature.com/articles/s41557-024-01509-w#Abs1.

-Dhali, Dipa. “Cytoskeleton: Definition, Structure, Components, & Function.” Science Facts, 17 Feb. 2023, www.sciencefacts.net/cytoskeleton.html.

    

What Do Chemicals In Plastics Impact Your Endocrine System

    This is a recent news article from Scientific American. It talks about the impact of human endocrine system caused by chemicals in the plastics called Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that people daily used or can easily access or get exposed to. 

    These EDCs can leach out of plastic water bottles or plastic containers and enter the human body causing damage to the endocrine system before entering the ecosystem. 

    By studying the effects of these chemicals on animals and lab-cultured cells, as well as human epidemiology, scientists have found that these EDCs can be linked to unhealthy humans. However, the pace of these research efforts is nowhere near the rate at which new chemical plastics are created and replaced. Of the more than 16,000 chemicals used in plastics, more than 1,000 are defined as EDCs, but only a small percentage are regulated, and the rest are still used in the production of plastics.

    So what exactly do EDCs entail? Many familiar chemical compounds belong to the EDCs family. For example, bisphenol, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), commonly known as "permanent" chemicals, and phthalates, all belong to the EDCs family. 

Biphenol A 

Phthalates

    If use their common names, they may be very familiar; phthalates are known as plasticizers to increase the flexibility and durability of plastics, while PFOS has non-stick properties. It is used in snack wrappers to prevent grease. Last month, the U.S. Food Safety Administration announced canceling the use of all packing bags containing PFOS. Bisphenol, on the other hand, is a chemical compound widely used in the lining of beverage bottles, as well as in some polyester fibers used to make clothing. Most EDCs are fat-soluble, and EDCs in clothing can dissolve in sweat and oil secreted by the human body, which can be absorbed by the human skin and cause harm to the human body. EDCs in food wrappers are more likely to dissolve in the oils and fats of food and be consumed by people. More frighteningly, the structure of these EDCs is similar to that of many human hormones, such as thyroid hormones, testosterone, estrogen, etc. When EDCs enter the body, they can cause disruption of the endocrine system.

    So how does EDC cause endocrine system disruption? The body's endocrine system is directed by the brain to cause the endocrine glands to release precise amounts of specific hormones at precise times to reach receptors throughout the body. This is the mystery of the human body. However, EDC disrupts this normal function in the form of mimicry, blocking (similar to the function of inhibitors). 

    Various activities of the human body are precisely regulated by the endocrine system, and when the wrong signals are transmitted, a series of serious and wide-ranging effects are likely to be triggered. Prof. Fernandez's experiments have shown that bisphenol can have an effect on fertility in rats, with rats exposed to bisphenol developing ovarian cysts. It was also found that bisphenol, which is similar in structure to oestrogen, can cause human breast cells to proliferate. This in turn increases the probability of getting breast cancer. Phthalate intake, on the other hand, has been found linked to insulin secretion and getting diabetes. Not only that, but BPA intake has been found to be passed on to infants through the mother-infant relationship, breastfeeding. Causing damage to infants.

    Reinecke, for his part, argues that moving beyond regulation on a chemical-by-chemical basis is necessary. She said that countries need to start imposing bulk bans on structurally similar chemicals in order to accelerate restrictions on chemicals to protect human health. While Seewoo said there needs to be rigorous safety testing of chemicals in plastics before they are introduced into consumer products. But the problem is not one that individuals can change, though people can still take steps to minimize exposure. For example, don't heat food in plastic, avoid buying food that is served in plastic, and so on.

    

Resources:

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-chemicals-in-plastics-impact-your-endocrine-system/

https://www.endocrine.org/patient-engagement/endocrine-library/edcs

Carbon Sequestration: A Possible Solution to Climate Change

Climate Sequestration: A Possible Solution to Climate Change

          One of the big proponents of global warming is the amount of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere. Carbon dioxide when released will spread around the planet like a blanket. When this happens, the gas absorbs infrared radiation which is felt as heat. This is what causes a notable portion of global warming. This is where carbon sequestration comes into play. Carbon sequsetration removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and then stores it long-term. If changes are made to allow for carbon sequestration to become more required, then we could see a big change in the fight on global warming.

        So what is carbon sequestration? Carbon sequestration is the process of removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This can be done in multile ways. One method is something that we all know about, and that is platning trees. The activities of afforestation (conversion of non forested land to forested) and reforestation (conversion of previously forested land to forested.) The way that this removes CO2 from the atmosphere is that the trees take in CO2 for photosynthesis, and release O2 back into the atmosphere. This is the most apparent way of carbon sequestration that has been discussed for decades.

      Another method of carbon sequestration is the capture and storage of CO2. Policy makers, engineers, and scientists proposed a technology to create a carbon capture and storage (CCS). In this process, CO2 is first seperated from other gases in industrial emissions. It is then compressed and transported to somewhere that is isolated from the atmosphere for long-term storage. Some suitable storage locations include geologic formations such as deep saline formations (sedimentary rocks whose pores are saturated with water), depleted oil and gas reseviours, or the deep ocean. Typically the CCS process is started at the source of the emission, so this is more useful for industrial plants, and not the general public.

        There are some challenges with implimenting carbon sequestration though. Companies that produce CO2 at industrial plants will be hesitant to impliment these methods into their facilities. The biggest problems are not technical, but more economical and political. We have the technology readily available to impliment CCS in industrial plants, but it will put a damper on profits for the companies they are implimented in. This makes them hesitant to impliment this practice, and it would make sense that if they were implimented, prices for these products produced by the industries would rise. If the companies do not want to impliment these practicies, then we can go to legislation to force implimentation. The issue here is that legislation can take a long time to pass, and they need to be effected evenly across all areas, or else companies will find other places that have no economic restriction on producing CO2.

        Overall, Carbon Sequestration can be an important process in removing carbon dioxide from the atmoshpere. There are methods of removing CO2 generally throughout the atmosphere (planting trees) and at the source of most emissions (CCS at Industrial Facilities). These methods have been proven to be effective at removing CO2 from the atmosphere. The issues lie with the willingness of the companies to impliment CCS at their facilities, and the passing of legislature evenly and fairly to make the companies comply. If Carbon Sequestration is implimented, we may be able to put a large dent in the global warming issue.

Novoselov, A. (2024, April 9). Carbon sequestration: A critical but less-understood piece of the climate puzzle. Institute of the Environment and Sustainability at UCLA. https://www.ioes.ucla.edu/article/carbon-sequestration-a-critical-but-less-understood-piece-of-the-climate-puzzle/

Selin, N. (n.d.). Carbon sequestration. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/technology/carbon-sequestration

 

         

 

Reusable plastic bottles release hundreds of pollutants into water.

     

Are reusable plastic bottles harmful?

     Nowadays, with the help of advanced analytical tools, scientists are now able to detect chemicals that may leach from plastic sports bottles into water. Recent research has uncovered that plastic bottles might not be as safe as we once thought. These bottles have been found to release hundreds of chemicals into the water they hold, with the amount generally increasing after being washed in the dishwasher. Therefore, it may be wise to reconsider the use of reusable sports bottles.

    Scientists have been aware for a while that chemicals can seep out of plastic, and some of these chemicals can be harmful. Manufacturers have already removed some of the more concerning chemicals, like bisphenol A (BPA), from plastic products such as water bottles. However, there is still little information available about other chemicals that could be released from these items. Scientists have only recently been equipped with the means to identify numerous compounds that plastics might release. According to Kurunthachalam Kannan, a chemist at New York University, new tools are now available that enable some of these unknown pollutants to be detected. At the University of Copenhagen in Denmark, two scientists have employed advanced analytical tools to examine water from sports bottles. 

    Christensen, who is a soccer coach, noticed that his team’s players frequently drank water from reusable plastic sports bottles. Occasionally, the players would complain that their water tasted or smelled like plastic, especially if it had been sitting in the bottles for a while. Christensen decided to investigate the issue, and he asked Selina Tisler, a scientist on his team, to assist him. At the time, Tisler recalls that they had no idea what they were looking for. The experiment went like this, water was left to sit for 24 hours in new bottles, used bottles, and bottles that had just gone through a dishwashing machine. Mass spectrometry was used to test the water, a device that can weigh the mass of different chemicals in a sample to identify them. Tisler and Christensen compared the substances present in the water from plastic bottles to those in water that had been stored in glass, and they discovered a significant difference.  The findings of Selina Tisler and Jan Christensen reveal that the water stored in these reusable bottles contained numerous plastic-related chemicals, which were not present in the original water. Also, over 400 different compounds were found to have migrated from new plastic bottles into the water. These compounds included plasticizers, which are added by manufacturers to make the bottles squeezable, slip agents that are used to make plastic products slide easily out of their molds, and chemicals related to inks, which can give the bottles color and make them look shiny.

 

plasticizers                                                

   plasticizers  structure                                                     

    It has been discovered that the highest levels of plastic-related chemicals can be found in the water stored in older plastic bottles. In addition, washing these bottles through a dishwasher can worsen the leaching of these chemicals. After just one wash cycle, over 3,500 different compounds can end up in a bottle of water, many of which are related to dishwasher soap and may remain even after a second rinse. The pollutants tend to adhere more strongly to plastic bottles than to glass ones. Dishwashing also seems to increase the release of plastic chemicals. 

    Plastics can be harmful when repeatedly exposed to high heat, causing chemicals to migrate out of them. While a dishwasher can clean and sanitize dishes effectively, it is not recommended to put plastic items in it. In the late 1990s, a scientist discovered that BPA, a chemical found in plastic cages and water bottles, had leached out and tainted the food and drinking water of lab mice. Mice exposed to this chemical had difficulty reproducing. Although no BPA was found in water stored in sports bottles, the study did detect other chemicals present in plasticizers and colorants that may similarly disrupt hormones.

 References

Reusable plastic bottles release hundreds of pollutants into water. (2022, May 18). Science News Explores. https://www.snexplores.org/article/reusable-plastic-bottles-release-hundreds-of-pollutants-into-water

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Hydrogen Water: Miracle or Myth?

     Hydrogen water is a relatively recent product that has been introduced to the masses. It consists of molecular hydrogen (H2) infused with regular water (H2O). It's quite safe to drink since H2 is non-toxic, like water. There are several ways to make hydrogen water, some more ideal than others. 

    Certain metals like magnesium can be introduced to water to make molecular hydrogen in a single displacement reaction. 

    However, excess magnesium hydroxide would be produced, making the water more alkaline. Additionally, one could easily buy hydrogen gas and pump hydrogen gas into the water to make their own hydrogen water. However, molecular hydrogen is particularly insoluble in water, which has led scientists to find new ways of production.

Diagram of Water Electrolysis

    In order to produce hydrogen in situ, scientists use an electrolyzer. In short, a current is passed through the water to facilitate a non-spontaneous redox reaction. The water is split into H2 gas, OH- ions, O2 gas, and +H ions. Some fancy electrolyzers come with a protein exchange membrane to aid in water conductivity. 

    Several claims suggest the freely accessible hydrogen in hydrogen water may have benefits that normal water cannot achieve. Specifically, hydrogen water is marketed to decrease inflammation, improve athletic performance, and resist aging (Kubala, 2019). All of these benefits, however, are probably linked to hydrogen water's antioxidant properties, which can have positive effects on many aspects of the human body. 

ROS and Hydrogen Gas Forming Water

Molecular hydrogen has been documented to have antioxidant properties. According to a paper, the consumption of H2 gas suppressed an ischemic brain injury by buffering the effects of oxidative stress (Ohsawa, 2007). H2 can rapidly diffuse across membranes and can reach and react with cytotoxic radical oxygen species (ROS) and thus protect against oxidative damage.

    Whether hydrogen water is a fad or a real lead is up for debate. The majority think it is the former, as there is very little precedent and extensive research to prove hydrogen water can consistently neutralize free radicals over a wide variety of biological systems. 

References

Kubala, J. (2019, January 16). Hydrogen water: Miracle drink or overhyped myth?. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/hydrogen-water#benefits

Ohsawa, I., Ishikawa, M., Takahashi, K., Watanabe, M., Nishimaki, K., Yamagata, K., Katsura, K., Katayama, Y., Asoh, S., & Ohta, S. (2007, May 7). Hydrogen acts as a therapeutic antioxidant by selectively reducing cytotoxic oxygen radicals. Nature News. https://www.nature.com/articles/nm1577

Insecticide Immunity Solved From Inside Your Kitchen

A common mosquito landing on a person's fingers

    Insecticide resistance in bugs is becoming an increasingly prevalent issue as insecticide usage increases. From keeping bugs out of homes to preventing deadly diseases, the widespread use of insecticides has been on the rise over the past century. This increased usage has been incredibly good at stopping bugs from damaging people, property, and wildlife. The downside of using so many for so long is that bugs are starting to become resistant and even immune to certain types. Many researchers in the industry are dedicated to creating new insecticides to help curb this problem, but some crystallographers have found a possible solution to this daunting problem by using a simple home appliance; the microwave.

    Science News interviewed Bart Kahr, a researcher at New York University that was working on crystal growth experiments with colleagues. Over time, they found out that multiple insecticides, including DDT and deltamethrin, worked well for the proposed experiment because of their crystal structures. Both of these compounds have more than one crystal structure, which makes them interesting to experiment with. This happens when the crystals are heated, which causes the compounds to rearrange their crystal structures. While testing the effectiveness of the deltamethrin after heating, they found that the new composition worked faster at killing mosquitoes than the original. After telling some entomologists about this discovery, the team partnered up with the bug experts to test the efficacy of this new structure on mosquitoes that were already resistant to deltamethrin. The result was a 100% success rate in killing the mosquitoes. 

Line Structure of Deltamethrin

    This works because of the way that deltamethrin crystallizes. When left to its own devices at room temperature, crystals of this molecule will form in the way that scientists are used to, known as the form I structure. This is the same structure that is available as a consumer pesticide. When the form I crystals are melted and then cooled back to a solid, the crystals form differently than normal because of the alternative pathway to reaching the crystalline form. This results in a polymorph, known simply as form II, of the crystalline structure. They initially used an oven to melt the form I crystals to the target 120 °C, but later decided to try a microwave oven to see if they could get the same results. The common household appliance was just as successful at melting the form I crystals and later crystallizing into the form II crystals at 25 °C. Despite the marvel of the experiment's success, the scientists involved in the study advised against doing this with the same microwave that you heat your food with.

    The fact that this experiment was a success can spell good things for the future of disease prevention. This is by far the most important use of insecticides across the world, as many nations are still significantly impacted by malaria. Since this disease is mainly spread by mosquitoes, it's important to have insecticides around human civilizations to prevent the spread of this horrible disease. It's important not to get your hopes up about the situation, though. While this discovery is definitely important and very impactful, there are a lot of drawbacks. The form II crystals can only be used while in a solid state. If they get dissolved in water, they will revert back to the form I structure. This means that all liquid based sprays are out of the question for this new method. Most bug nets that contain deltamethrin have the compound inserted when the net is being made, and if they wanted to turn those crystals into the form II structure, it would require evenly heating the entire net at once. Since these nets get quite big, it's hard to ensure the possibility of this happening. Nonetheless, the discovery itself is important in understanding how insecticides affect bugs and understanding what steps can be taken in the future to help combat the increase in insecticide resistance.

References: 

Saey, T. H. (2023, May 21). Microwaving an insecticide restores its mosquito-killing power. Science News. Retrieved April 2, 2024, from https://www.sciencenews.org/article/mosquito-microwave-insecticide-spray

Yang, J., Erriah, B., Hu, C. T., Reiter, E., Zhu, X., López-Mejías, V., Carmona-Sepúlveda, I. P., Ward, M. D., & Kahr, B. (2023, January 6). A deltamethrin crystal polymorph for more effective malaria control. PNAS. Retrieved April 2, 2024, from https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2013390117#sec-1

Dangerous Microplastics are Being Found in the Body

 

Figure 1: Microplastics found in sand.

Plastics are everywhere in the world and are used in almost all aspects of life.  They are polymers, meaning that its chemical compound is made up of many repeating units, also called a chain. Some examples of common plastics are polystyrene, which is used to produce packing materials and has a chemical formula of (C8H8)n, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which has a chemical formula of (C2H3Cl)n and it used in a wide range of materials such as shower curtains to indoor plumbing. Although plastics have arguably improved some parts of life (convenience-wise), there is no denying the negative impacts that plastics have on the environment. This is mainly due to the fact that most plastics have not been recycled and are filling up landfills and the oceans. 

Figure 2: The chemical formula of polystyrene, a plastic with many uses

Because of this, there have been growing concerns of how plastics may affect human health. Around 20 years ago, a marine biologist named Richard Thompson first discovered small plastic particles, which he called "microplastics". Since this discovery, scientists all over the world have been looking for microplastics everywhere, including in living creatures.  An article posted by the New York Times covered different discoveries by scientists and where they have found microplastics in the human body. For example, a group of Italian researchers first detected microplastics in the human placenta. Additionally, a research group in the Netherlands tested microplastics on immune cells and found that the cells that came in contact with various plastics died three times as quickly compared to the cells that did not. They also discovered that polystyrene was especially toxic to the immune cells. 

Figure 3: Image of the microplastic Dr Gündoğu found in brain tissue.

The article's main focus is on research from a group in Turkey, who claims they have found microplastics inside of the human brain. Some of the particles they identified were "deep inside the tissue of cancerous brain tumors". A film was created based off of this research to highlight the importance of microplastic pollution and spread awareness. The research in the documentary was done by Dr Gündoğu at Cukurova University, who discovered six different kinds of plastic particles in 15 different samples, from patients with tumors. He says that he is not exactly sure how the plastics may have gotten into the brain tissue, but because of previous data of microplastics being in blood, he concludes that they may have traveled via the blood vessels feeding the tumors. There has to be more research done to see specific effects that the plastics have on the brain, but it is hypothesized that chemicals coming from the plastics can seep into the cells.

The article concludes talking about the co-director of the movie, saying that she hopes her film can inspire people into changing the way we consume plastics, especially single-use ones. 

References:

1. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/09/health/microplastics-sxsw-health-plastic-people.html 

2. https://www.sciencehistory.org/education/classroom-activities/role-playing-games/case-of-plastics/science-of-plastics/

3. https://katiecouric.com/health/what-are-microplastics-dangers/