Glowing Plants

Posted by Emma Crouch

The chemistry world has recently been talking about the glowing Venus flytrap and why it has made breakthroughs. Scientists have recently found that by splicing a special gene into the carnivorous plant, researchers can visualize the mechanism and chemistry that helps them snap shut on prey. When provoking a Venus flytrap, the first stimulus is often ignored, and action is not seen until the second. For years, scientists have struggled with why this phenomenon only occurs on the second stimulus. However, they have now found that it is due to Calcium ions. The plant uses the calcium to convey information and makes it easy for the cell to recognize change in concentration. To observe this in the lab, scientists used a gene that when bound to calcium, produces a fluorescent green. This gene was integrated with a modified bacterium. Once implemented, researchers were able to visualize the difference of total calcium ions between the first stimulus and the stimulus that eventually made the Venus flytrap close. With this new and exciting information researchers will be able to understand even more about the electrical activity of many plants.

Glow Seen From First Stimulus 

Glow Seen From Second Stimulus 

 

 

There’s Water and Ice on the Moon, and in More Places Than NASA Thought

 Posted by Anna Evers

An article in the NYT has reported that NASA has found unambiguous evidence of water on the moon where the sun shines. A team of scientists used SOFIA, an infrared telescope mounted inside a 747- jumbo jet, to discover that water might be distributed across the lunar surface and not limited to the cold shadowed places near the lunar poles. The water was detected via six-micron waves, that water molecules characteristically emit. This may mean that astronauts going to the moon in the future will not only have access to water, but also possibly oxygen, since water molecules can be broken into their constituent hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The oxygen would give the astronauts something to breathe. Hydrogen and oxygen can also be used as rocket propellant for trips home to Earth or even some day to Mars and beyond.

The article also mentions that observations by a spacecraft a decade ago had also suggested a widespread distribution of water on the moon. Those measurements focused on a shorter, three-micron wavelength that was more ambiguous, unable to differentiate between a water molecule, which consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom or hydroxyl, which has one hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom. Finding hydroxyl molecules on the moon instead of water would be very disappointing for astronauts.

It can also be dangerous for astronauts to try and extract the water, as it is often found in deep, very cold craters. This water finding was unique because it found water molecules in shallower, warmer craters. Scientists are not yet sure how the molecules can exist here, but they do. The water molecules detected are also not puddles of water but spread far enough apart that they cannot form ice or liquid water. In 2022, NASA is planning to send an IR rover to the moon, and hopefully confirm this new evidence. 

                                                      

         

Hydroxyl vs water molecules 

Climate Surgery: A Revolution in Medicine?

 Posted by Jordan Berry

Recently, as reported in the Newy York Times novel neurosurgery was performed that gave new life without seizures, epilepsy, and chronic anorexia. The patient? Cronutt, a 7-year old sea lion.

Figure 1: A picture of Cronutt after surgery

 

Figure 2: The two pastries for which Cronutt is named after, the croissant and the donut

Climate change has had many deleterious effects for environments and for people, but many do not consider the effect on aquatic life. Climate change has lead to the prominence and proliferation of algal blooms, algae that uncontrollably grow and distribute domoic acid to shellfish that sea lions, like Cronutt, eat to survive. This poison, is for one, a neurotoxin that have recently caused a new form of climate change induced epilepsy called amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) in animals like sea lions, sea otters, and humans.

Figure 3: Domoic Acid

Unfortunately, due to the novelty of this disease, there currently is no treatments available. According to the Washington State Department of Health, for humans they are typically put on life support until either the toxin passes through their system or they die. For sea lions without a complex medical system like humans, they tend to suffer terrible deaths by drowning while having a seizure underwater. Typical epileptic treatments like Valium, steroids, and phenobarbital fail, so a new treatment was devised where three neurosurgeons from USCF replaced hippocampal neurons in Cronutt’s brain using embryonic pig brain cells. This surgery, according to the neurosurgeons and his veterinarian caretakers, seems to have been successful at first glance. Only time will tell if this success sticks.

                                                (a)                                                        (b)

(c)

Figure 4: The typical seizure medications(a)Diazepam (Valium), (b)Prednisone (typically labeled steroids), and (c)Phenobarbital

This article, although not chemophobic, gives negative connotations to chemistry. It does not present chemists as aloof or indiscriminate to their waste, but it does present those who use their inventions in this way. It presents the chemical medical treatments given the Cronutt as insufficient and the chemical that is produced as a toxin a direct byproduct of human activity. This article only prevents chemophobia by mentioning the specific names of the chemicals as to prevent a generalization of all industrial chemicals as a cause of this. It does not perpetuate or challenge the stereotypes of chemists since this story is not about chemists but the chemicals themselves. It does argue that there needs to be more attention placed on our oceans, but does not mention any specific actions chemists can take to alleviate these issues. As the story concludes, one of the veterinarians mention, “Even if it doesn’t work, and there’s a chance it won’t work, maybe Cronutt’s purpose is to educate that there are toxins in our water and our ocean needs our attention.”

How Does Your Garden Glow?

Posted by Sondra Broomell

Venus Flytraps are one of the very plant species that are carnivorous and exhibit movement. It is thought that this evolutionary adaptation came about in response to life in areas with little nutrition. When triggered, the plant snaps shut, digests, and absorbs nutrients from their visiting prey. However, the response is a bit complex, for a plant. For the “mouth” lobes to shut, the prey must brush, push, or somehow agitate trigger hairs located on the lobes twice, in quick succession (within 30 seconds). This double trip adaptation is believed to keep the plant from wasting energy by snapping shut on something that causes only a momentary disturbance, such as a raindrop or wind. Scientists have been studying the Venus flytrap for some time in hope of discovering the evolution of movement and carnivory in plants as well as discovering how the plant remembers how many times its sensory hair was triggered without a nervous system. In 1988 a group of scientists conducted a study utilizing freeze-fracture studies and microelectrode measurements to determine the action potential of the Venus Flytrap movement. Through a series of experiments, the researchers measured action potentials generated by several different ions. They suspected that two overlapping spikes in intracellular calcium ions were required for the plant to snap shut. Calcium ions are known to convey information between cells but without the technology to measure extracellular and intracellular calcium concentration, their findings were limited. But for the first time Japanese researchers were able to visualize, through fluorescence, the calcium ions required for the Venus Flytrap to shut. A recent article on The New York Times website summarizes the study published in Nature Plants. With gene splicing technology, the researchers introduced a fluorescent protein gene to the Venus Flytrap by infecting the leaves with a modified bacteria which were then used to grow new plants containing the fluorescent gene. This protein, GCaMP6, only fluoresces when bound to its target, calcium ions, enabling visualization of calcium ion movement into the cell. Once the plants matured, all that was left was to trigger the sensory hairs of the Flytraps and watch them glow. After a single disturbance of the trigger hair, the fluorescence began at the base of the trigger hair and spread across the leaves. After a second disturbance of the trigger hair within 30 seconds, a second surge of intracellular calcium ions caused the lobes glow brighter, and the concentration reached the threshold to trigger an action potential that caused the plant to snap shut. When the second trip happened after 30 seconds, enough calcium ions diffused out of the cell to prevent the concentration from reaching the threshold for movement. Visualizing ionic movement through a plant by means of fluorescence is sure to be spectacular, but also puts up a step closer to understanding the mechanism behind plant movement.

Figures from PhysOrg

https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/12/science/venus-flytraps-close.html

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-020-00773-1

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00394867

https://phys.org/news/2020-10-probe-memory-venus-flytrap.html

 

What tiny surfing robots teach us about surface tension

 Posted by Harrison Smith

It’s pumpkin season. The air is crisp. Leaves are falling, along with the temperature. Some may call it sweater weather; some may call it spooky season. But if you are anything like my friends, we just use it as an excuse to hit the winery. That is, those who are 21, of course. If you have ever been to a winery, I am sure you have seen a wide assortment of characters. You have your middle-aged reunions and your first dates. You have your young crowd, probably going just to drink and maybe crash a wedding (I’m definitely not speaking from experience). They don’t really know much about wine. On the contrary, you can be sure to find your wine connoisseurs, or the taste experts. You know who I’m talking about: those who taste test from nine different bottles and twirl the wine in the glass before taking a miniscule sip. We have all seen the classic wine twirl in movies, but what is it that these experts are actually looking for?

They’re looking for wine legs, or tears. Check out the picture below for a better idea!

Pretty neat right!? Who knew wine could walk? Well, that isn’t exactly what’s going on here. What we are actually looking at is the Marangoni Effect. The schematic below did a great job explaining the science behind this phenomenon.

The biggest concept here is the difference in surface tension throughout the wine. If you think of the wine as two components, the alcohol vs. the other stuff, it’s intuitive that they will have different chemical properties. Specifically, the alcohol has a lower surface tension compared to the other components. So, when the wine connoisseur spins the wine, thus thinning increasing surface area and the rate of evaporation towards the top of the glass, the liquid at the top is composed of less wine. This causes a subtle increase in surface tension towards the top of the wine. The increase in surface tension pulls mass in that direction. This net force, propelling particles from low surface tension to high surface tension, is known as the Marangoni Effect.

Dr. Hassan Masoud, at the Michigan Technological University is a Mechanical Engineer who has plenty of experience with the Marangoni Effect. A recent Science Daily article, “What tiny surfing robots teach us about surface tension,” speaks on Masoud’s work at Michigan Tech. He has been using tiny robots, just microns in size, to study liquid interfaces. Apparently, a lot of work has been published with microscopic swimming robots, but Dr. Masoud has more of a niche area of research with his surfing robots.

Recently, he made an interesting discovery. His surfing robots, with no engine or propeller mechanism, were propelled in a direction opposite of the Marangoni Effect. As previously discussed, the Marangoni Effect describes the transfer of mass and momentum in the direction of higher surface tension. Masoud’s surfing robots actually moved in the direction of lower surface area. He coined this term “reverse Marangoni propulsion.”

It was determined through further research that negative pressure suction from the low surface area was the primary propulsive force. However, by experimenting with different liquid thickness and chemical releases, Masoud and his coworkers found that particles can react in agreement with Marangoni, against Marangoni, and come to a complete stand still. Masoud noted that science has just begun to scratch the surface of understanding particle movement at the liquid interface.

Once a more concrete understanding is had, scientists can begin to learn how to control the movement of these particles. This could potentially be used in in a physiological setting to gain a better understanding of how bacteria colonize. Infection has plagued humans since we have been on Earth, and it is still a surprisingly common occurrence post-surgery. Many surgeries, particularly joint replacements requiring metal implants, result in bacteria-caused infection. If we can use Masoud’s research to gain a better understand and potentially control bacterial swarming, it would be a massive step forward in a biomedical context.

With that being said, I feel obligated to do my part to help society. I’m going to go grab a bottle and study up... in the name of science!

Why adding salt makes fruit - and candy - sweeter

 Posted by Ayaz Yelemessov

A recent article in Science magazine talks about how ironically if you treat eating something salty before eating something sweet the sweetness will be enhanced.  Originally the ability to taste sweetness was attributed to a family of receptors called T1R which recognize the glucose and artificial sweeteners. However, this hypothesis was disproved in 2003 when mice whose T1R were genetically disabled were still able to sense sweetness. Attempting to explain such a phenomenon, physiologists of Tokyo Dental Junior College looked at the enzyme called sodium- glucose cotransporter 1 (SGCT1).  Tongues of T1R disabled mice were rubbed with a solution of salt and glucose or just glucose, then responses were recorded. Results showed that mice whose tongues were rubbed with salt-glucose solution had a more rapid response.  Sadly, this experiment worked only with glucose due to enzymes specificity. The hypothesis was proven when SGCT1 inhibiting compounds prevented response to glucose in mice. Article also explored that sweet sensing is tied to three ways, one for each receptor and third for combined receptors. First two pathways allow bodies to distinguish between artificial and natural sweeteners. The combined pathway was also responsive to fatty acids and umami which might suggest how animals sense calorie- rich foods.

This ties to concepts of galvanic chemistry and nerve electric impulses explored in Frankenstein.  In galvanic chemistry charged species move and through movement are able to generate small amounts of electricity. This allows for complex nervous systems to function by manipulating chemical gradients of sodium and potassium to create small electric impulses.  This concept was utilized in Frankenstein’s endeavors where Victor used large amounts of electricity to reanimate dead flesh. Similarly, sodium ion charges stimulate the nerve cells in mice enhancing the sensation of sweetness in mice that should not sense. This shows how electricity can create movement of muscles and thoughts in the brain by supplying extra electrons and creating ion movement. 

New Enzyme Breaks Down Plastic Faster Than Ever Before!

 Posted by Julia Munoz

British and American researchers have developed new enzymes that speed up the breakdown of plastic. This new method is faster, more affordable, and works better on a large scale than current methods. The New York Times article claims that the new “super enzyme” has the ability to break down plastic much more quickly and can create raw materials to make new bottles, while making the material easier to repurpose.

Prof. John McGeehan in Britain in 2018.

Worldwide, there are 359 million tons of plastic produced annually. Of the 359 million tons, at least 150 million tons of this plastic is sitting in landfills or in the environment somewhere. While sitting in the ocean, plastic can take up to 450 years to degrade, if it does at all. The plastic that does break down in the ocean can be found in marine life, ocean water, and even the guts of humans.

The journal PNAS, was published by scientists at the University of Portsmouth, and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, focuses on a mixture of two enzymes found in bacterium in Japan in 2016. In 2018, while studying the first enzymes ability to break down plastic, the researchers added the second enzyme and found that the plastics were broken down six times as fast.

This article is chemistry related because the enzyme can only effectively break down the plastic based on their chemical composition. While this article is not linked to much controversy, the article is about a major problem that the world today is facing. I think that this would be a good

article to show a CHEM 100 class because while it is not too difficult in terms of chemistry terms and concepts, it does show a very current and pressing issue in our environment today and how chemistry can be used to work towards solving the problem.

Mysterious Poison in Russian Coast Water

Posted by Nathaniel Renner

Recent news articles from CBS News and The Washington Post reported that in the recent weeks’ surfers and locals of the far eastern peninsula of Kamchatka, Russia have been reporting discolored water, a mass die-off of ocean wildlife, and a “poison-like” effect after exposure to the water. The symptoms of the “poison-like” effect have been described as “White shroud, blurred vision, dryness. Sore throat,” by some surfers, as well as many surfers reporting “nausea, weakness, [and a] high fever”. Originally the local government officials claimed there were no problems releasing a statement saying “The color of the water is normal, the smell of the air is normal, the beach is completely clean. . . . Nothing anomalous was recorded.” However, after much outcry from the continuing mass die-off, the local acting Minister of Natural Resources and Ecology, Aleksei Kumarkov, reported that upon analyzing a sample of water levels of petroleum products were revealed to be at four-times what they should be, and levels of the toxic compound Phenol at over two-times the normal levels.

Figure 1: Structure of Phenol

Figure 2: Map showing the location of Kamchatka, Russia 

Phenol is an aromatic organic compound that is composed of a phenyl group bonded to a hydroxy group. Phenol is mildly acidic and can cause chemical burns to the skin in high concentrations. Phenol and its vapors are corrosive to the eyes, the skin, and the respiratory tract. It can also be absorbed through the skin relatively quickly and even with only a small area of skin, meaning oral consumption is not necessary. Contact with Phenol may cause harmful effects to the central nervous system (CNS) and heart leading to dysrhythmia, seizures, and coma. Repeated exposure to phenol can be harmful to the liver, kidneys, reproductive organs and could be possibly fatal as the LD50 has been reported at around 140 mg/kg or a total dose of 1-32g for humans. The toxic and corrosive effects are due to a protein-degenerating effect as well as the formation of phenoxyl radicals. When comparing the side effects of Phenol poisoning and the reported side effects of the surfers who have been exposed to the water, there appears to be a match. The surfers reported blurred vision, sore throats, and weakness which match well to Phenol’s effect on the eyes, respiratory tracts, and CNS. Phenol is also toxic to fish and other sea life at levels of 0.05 mg/L which would explain the mass die-off being seen.

Figure 3: Ariel Footage showing discoloration in the water surrounding Kamchatka

Figure 4: Deceased Sea life from mass die-off on the shores of Kamchatka 

While the source of the petroleum products and the toxic Phenol is currently unknown the Russia Government has begun to take the situation more seriously and there are some preliminary theories of what the source could be. The regional government has started an investigation into the cause and the governor of Kamchatka, Vladimir Solodov, said more samples of the water had been sent to Moscow for analysis, and he promised to fire anyone who is found to have deliberately tried to cover up or embellish the crisis at it initial surfacing. Some locals have theorized that the source is from military training exercises but Russia defense ministry has denied this claim. As of now the prevailing theory from Russia’s Tass news agency reports that a commercial oil tanker was likely the source. This is very plausible as phenol is a common waste product of petroleum refining.

Sources:

• ●  https://www.cbsnews.com/news/kamchatka-russia-disaster-pollution-animal-die-off-oil-

  found-pacific-killing-sea-life/

• ●  https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/russia-kamchatka-oil-spill-

  octopus/2020/10/04/812c1c92-0570-11eb-b92e-029676f9ebec_story.html

• ●  http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.302.3133&rep=rep1&type=pdf

• ●  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenol#Toxicity