COVID-19 Treatment on Trial

David DeMarco was placed in the intensive care unit in Wilmington hospital shortly after coming down with COVID-19. His condition deteriorated to the point that he was sent home for hospice care. His story, as reported by Esteban Parra in the Delaware News Journal (September 20, 2021), then involves a lawsuit filed by his wife seeking a court order to treat him with ivermectin. The hospital had declined to do so 

 

saying they are not using ivermectin in the treatment or prevention or treatment of COVID-19 because the science and data do not support its use.”

The case is one of several filed across the country seeking court orders to require hospitals to give COVID-19 patients ivermectin. According to Bloomberg law the trend is unnerving health lawyers who fear the possibility of a flood of court orders overriding medical guidance. This could strain an already overloaded health system.

Conservative social media, feeding conservative skepticism of COVID-19 vaccines, have promoted ivermectin as both treatment and preventative of COVID-19. Gullible consumers of conservative social media refuse vaccination and instead rely on ivermectin. The extent of the problem is suggested by a recent report in the New York Times by Erin Woo that veterinarians and ranchers are reporting serious shortages of ivermectin which is used as an anti-parasitic in animals. The Times also notes that on Facebook alone dozens of discussion groups with tens of thousands members continue to flourish.

According to Woo’s account the misinformation began with the publication of an Australian study in April of 2020 that ivermectin in high concentrations killed the COVID-19 virus in a laboratory setting. Small clinical studies of varying design and quality have appeared since. The NIH reviewed these in February of 2021 and concluded that “there is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against the use of ivermectin to treat COVID-19.” The NIH review noted that ivermectin shows activity in vitro (in a laboratory) against a number of viral disease vectors, but no clinical studies show ivermectin to be effective against the corresponding diseases in humans. The FDA has not approved ivermectin as a treatment for any viral disease On the other hand a recent peer-reviewed meta-analysis of the available studies concluded that “moderate-certainty evidence finds that large reductions in COVID-19 deaths are possible using ivermectin.” While this might be encouraging the analysis found that evidence for prevention of COVID-19 using ivermectin was weak. It would appear that use of ivermectin on seriously ill COVID-19 patients might be justified but hardly required. Furthermore encouraging its use to prevent the disease when safe and effective vaccines are available would be irresponsible in the extreme.

Building Blocks on Mars

    Colonization on Mars has always been a lofty, elusive, and faraway goal. The fantasies of living on the distant red planets has been the stuff of science fiction media and space fanatics. As time has gone on, humanity has learned more and more about Mars, and perhaps one obstacle to our dreams of colonization has been solved.

    In his Newsweek article "Astronaut Blood, Sweat, Tears, Urine and Space Dust Could Be Used To Build Homes on Mars", Robert Lea summarizes findings by the University of Manchester in the possible future of Martian infrastructure. An entirely new substance created solely from human bodily fluids and Martian soil has been discovered and tested as an alternative to earthly building materials such as wood and concrete; this mixture is known as AstroCrete.

Figure 1: Graphical representation of AstroCrete production

    While there are a number of issues preventing Martian colonization, one such pressing issue was the thought of building shelter and infrastructure for future humanity. Shipping materials from Earth is an option, but one that is impractical. The cost to ship a singular brick from Earth to Mars is estimated to be around 2 million dollars. AstroCrete can be created on Mars using the very land and the human body itself. AstroCrete is a mixture of Martian dust and human serum albumin (HSA). This mixture has the potential to be strengthened further with the addition of urea, found in human tears, sweat, and urine. The article states, "Researchers calculated that six astronauts on a two-year mission could create around 1,200 pounds of high-strength AstroCrete" (Lea, 2021).

Figure 2: Life-cycle flow diagram of HSA and urea based AstroCrete

Figure 3: Visible light images of AstroCrete (a) after creation (b) during compression and (c) after compression testing

    

    What is next for AstroCrete? Scientists are currently testing natural alternatives to HSA that are plant based or can be created synthetically since human blood may not always be a plausible option. One thing is for sure though, AstroCrete is a readily available building block, stronger than concrete on Earth, that is helping pave our way to a future we have only dreamed of.

References

Lea, R. Astronaut Blood, Sweat, Tears, Urine and Space Dust Could Be Used To Build Homes on Mars.     Newsweek, September 2021, Retrieved from https://www.newsweek.com/astronaut-blood-sweat-            tears-urine-space-dust-mars-homes-astrocrete-1629281

A.D. Roberts; D.R. Whittall; R. Breitling; E. Takano; J.J. Blaker; S. Hay; N.S. Scrutton. Blood, sweat,         and tears: extraterrestrial regolith biocomposites with in vivo binders, Materials Today Bio,Volume         12, 2021,100136, ISSN 2590-0064, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtbio.2021.100136, Retrieved                     from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590006421000442.

Make Your Pick: Cancer or Cancer?

 In The Washington Post article "Why the FDA Is Looking at the Chemicals in Sunscreens: QuickTake", author Anna Edney introduces the idea that sunscreens could actually be leading to forms of cancer. 

Although the FDA has not mandated any official recalls yet, Johnson & Johnson has recalled some well-known brands of sunscreen, including sunscreen products from Neutrogena and Aveeno. In addition to sunscreen, some after-sun products have also been found to contain the carcinogen of concern, which has led to some companies, such as CVS Health, halting the sale of these products.

Figure 1: The 78 sunscreens found by Valisure to contain benzene.

Now what is this carcinogen behind all this sunscreen concern? The chemical that has been found in many sunscreen products, including some that are still on the shelves, is called benzene. This chemical has been reported by the CDC as a connection to leukemia, a cancer of the blood. So how is this chemical used in sunscreens? It actually is not an ingredient in the sunscreen itself, but rather a product from octocrylene, which can degrade into benzophenone, a reactant in the product of benzene. Benzophenone is currently being studied and the FDA has emphasized that only zinc oxide and titanium dioxide are supported as safe sun protection products.

    

Figure 2: The generation of benzophenone from octocrylene.

Figure 3: The production of benzene from benzophenone.

Earlier this year, Hawaii banned sunscreens containing the chemical oxybenzone, as they caused death to the coral reef. Now, the state is considering banning all sun products that are not backed by the FDA (zinc oxide and titanium dioxide).

    

Figure 4: One of the FDA recommended forms of UV protection, zinc oxide.

Currently, the FDA is studying the sunscreens and will determine whether these products are safe for use. 

Sources:

https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/why-the-fda-is-looking-at-the-chemicals-in-sunscreens-quicktake/2021/08/29/c5910e10-092f-11ec-a7c8-61bb7b3bf628_story.html

https://chembites.org/2021/03/17/more-than-spf-some-common-sunscreen-ingredients-to-avoid/

https://tardigrade.in/question/benzophenone-can-be-converted-into-benzene-using-qx7es3we

https://www.valisure.com/blog/valisure-news/valisure-detects-benzene-in-sunscreen/

https://www.riteaid.com/shop/rite-aid-pharmacy-zinc-oxide-ointment-2-oz-57-g-0031387

Rusty Trains Transformed Into Clean Air

 

As of 2019, only ten percent of the energy sources that humans utilize are wind and solar powered. These have been proven to be the most environmentally friendly compared to the common fossil fuels like gas and coal, as they do not produce nitrogen oxides that get released into the environment. Nitrogen oxides are a precursor to smog which has proven to be an issue in larger cities in parts of India. 

The shift from fossil fuels to a more sustainable source of energy has been explored for a few generations by now. If human consumption of fossil fuels doesn’t slow down soon, they will not be able to be replenished. While it is a cheaper alternative and easier to store and transport, the long term effects of burning fossil fuels have proven to have negative effects on air quality and need to be switched to something more sustainable. 

Lithium ion batteries have also been heavily relied upon and are able to be cost effective at several hours when the solar panels aren’t receiving any sun or if the wind turbines aren’t turning. With all of the benefits of solar and wind energy, scientists are trying to figure out a way to store this energy collected for days where the environment isn’t at its ideal conditions. Communities that rely on just these two sources of energy will experience power shortages on a cloudy day or when the wind isn’t blowing. The mining of the lithium that is required to power these batteries also required a massive amount of water which has caused some adjacent communities to experience a drought that has led to famine. 

Figure 1: The type of rusty bolts that will be used to convert to clean energy.

The future of renewable energy has been found in Somerville, Massachusetts in the form of rusting iron pellets. Rust is caused by the oxidation of iron or steel when it is exposed to water and oxygen. When the exposure happens, the iron particles become oxidized, resulting in the formation of Fe(OH)3. This results in a product of hydrated iron (III) oxide. Rust typically does not serve any useful purpose and it is seen as a negative byproduct when it comes to machinery and cars. Rust can occur at any rate, it is all dependent on the surrounding environment. 

4Fe + 3O2 + 6H2O → 4Fe(OH)3

Scientist Matteo Jamarillo believes that the rust that is found on these old iron pellets may form the basis of a battery that is one tenth the cost of a lithium battery and is able to hold the energy storage for more than one hundred hours. The lithium batteries are currently only able to hold energy storage for a few hours at most. The batteries are able to discharge energy from the pellets of iron as they go through controlled oxidation in an air and moisture rich environment. Oxidation typically occurs on the side of the cell that contains the anode. The reverse chemical process, also known as “derusting” uses an electric current to convert the rust back into its pure iron state. This can be done through the process of electrolysis where the bond is broken between the oxygen and iron atoms. Oxidation itself is a reversible process but the only problem with tht is that there is no guarantee that the shape of the material will remain the same as it was before oxidation. Jamarillo is in the process of figuring this out. 

The Fe/FeO redox reaction can be used to create hydrogen during the oxidation of iron. These hydrogen atoms can then be consumed by a fuel cell in conjunction with the oxygen from the air to create electricity. When this energy needs to be stored, the hydrogen generated by the water by operating the fuel cell in reverse is then consumed during the reduction of the iron oxide to the metallic iron. The combination of these two processes make this battery a rechargeable system. 

(Fe + H2O ⇌ FeO + H2)

Figure 2: Diagram depicting the reversible process of the oxidation of iron to form rust. 

While discharging, the battery “breathes” in oxygen from the air and converts iron metal to rust. While charging, the electrical current converts the rust back to iron and the battery then “breathes” out oxygen. 

The idea of iron-air batteries isn't a new concept as it has been explored before by other companies. It has previously been overlooked because they have been too heavy to be portable and would work best as stationary storage. The appeal of iron-air batteries is that it involves rust which is an environmentally friendly, nontoxic component. The controversy that follows this new idea is the fact that switching over from a fossil fuels based world into renewable energy is a long and expensive process. 

Figure 3: A picture of the iron-air battery. They are typically the size of a washing machine. 

Works Cited: 

Battery technology. Form Energy. (2021, July 28). Retrieved September 21, 2021, from https://formenergy.com/technology/battery-technology/.

Metcalfe, T. (2021, August 6). Rust? Trains? Why clean energy is turning to exotic ideas to fix its storage problem. NBCNews.com. Retrieved September 21, 2021, from https://www.nbcnews.com/science/environment/rust-trains-clean-energy-turning-exotic-ideas-fix-storage-problem-rcna1613. 

 

Life OFF Earth? If We Screw Up the Planet, Have We Found Our Backup Plan?

 Hycean Planets: The Key to Colonizing Life in Space?     

    A recent discovery made by a research group at Cambridge University's Institute of Astronomy shows Hycean planets, a new class of "hot planets" could have potential for supporting life. 

    Researchers claim that there is evidence that shows that these Hycean planets have strong potential for the ability to support life, but what exactly IS a Hycean planet? Hycean planets are generally larger than the Earth, on average being 2.6 times the size of the Earth in diameter. Hycean planets are also hotter than the Earth and can reach up to 200° C. The word Hycean is not an actual word, but a combination of "Hydrogen" and "Ocean" created by researchers to emphasize the two most important characteristics of these planets: Their Hydrogen-rich atmospheres and their large liquid oceans. The Hydrogen-rich atmosphere is significant to the potential of life on Earth because the early atmosphere of Earth was theorized to have been Hydrogen rich as well. According to the Miller-Urey Experiment of 1953, the early atmosphere of Earth was most likely composed of high amounts of Hydrogen and low amounts of Oxygen. The early atmosphere of Earth being filled with various compounds, having an oceanic environment and lightening to stimulate reactions helped to produce amino acids, the building blocks of life. 

    The Hydrogen-rich atmosphere of these planets suggests the possibility for creating life on these Hycean planets does exist. Having planet wide oceans is also helpful in the potential for life 

as seen in the effects of the oceanic environment for the Miller-Urey experiment. Another similarity between these Hycean planets and Earth is the existence of massive solid surfaces and coastlines. 

    The most promising discovery that would confirm the potential for life on these Hycean planets according to astronomers would be solid evidence of biosignatures. Biosignatures are "chemical fingerprints of biological processes in the planets' atmospheres" (Anderson, 2021). The main biosignatures to look for are ozone, oxygen, methane and nitrous oxide. Dimethyl sulphide and methyl chloride are to be expected as well due to the high Hydrogen concentration in the atmosphere of these planets. Researchers believe that due to the planets' larger sizes, higher temperatures and Hydrogen-rich atmospheres, finding biosignatures should be relatively easy. 

    This is Hycean planet K2-18b, the primary candidate among Hycean planets for supporting life. This planet, between 35-150 lightyears away is for now the best representative for hosting life among the Hycean planets. As of now, the potential for human life there is small. The hotter temperatures lead to this as well as only half of the planet being habitable on its permanent night side. However, supporting microbial life seems possible, as researchers compare it to the extreme environments of our oceans. 

    So COULD this planet, or any of its fellow Hycean planets serve as a replacement for Earth? Probably not, unless we can get our hands on some highly advanced technology to make 400° F feel like 80° F. It would be a lot easier, and a lot cheaper, to work on making our planet a better place. After all, there's no place like home. 

Author: Anas Mahmoud

References

Hycean planets might be habitable ocean worlds. EarthSky. (2021, August 29). Retrieved September 21, 2021, from https://earthsky.org/space/hycean-planets-exoplanets-habitability/. 

Scientists propose new hypothesis on the origin of life. Phys.org. (n.d.). Retrieved September 21, 2021, from https://phys.org/news/2009-09-scientists-hypothesis-life.html. 

Strickland, A. (2021, August 26). This new class of hot ocean worlds could support life. CNN. Retrieved September 21, 2021, from https://www.cnn.com/2021/08/26/world/hycean-planets-habitable-scn/index.html. 

TheFunsuman. (2013, January 6). Urey Miller Experiment | origin of life. YouTube. Retrieved September 21, 2021, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nK3iVIiaEmE. 

Radiometric Dating of Mysterious Nazi Cubes

 We’ve all been there at least once or twice -- You’re walking through your house, and you have to ask yourself, “Where did I even get all this junk?”. It happens to everyone, including the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. In their case, one such example is three small uranium cubes that they’ve had in their possession for a long time. The local rumors are that these cubes were confiscated from Nazi Germany at the end of World War 2, but it seems that nobody remembers for sure. Jesus Jiménez, in his article “Did Nazis Produce These Uranium Cubes? Researchers Look for an Answer.”, describes the lab’s current struggle, along with the University of Maryland, to uncover the secrets behind these mysterious radioactive cubes. 

At the end of the war, around 500-600 cubes of this sort were confiscated from the Nazi stockpiles. However, most have been lost in the years since. Dr. Jon Schwantes, the researcher in charge of this effort, says that the lost cubes were “most likely… folded into our weapons stockpile”. 

The key to this research is dating the cubes through knowledge of their radioactive decay. Uranium steadily decays into thorium over time, releasing mass through emitted alpha particles. By carefully measuring the ratio of Thorium to Uranium, the researchers can deduce approximately how long it’s been since the cubes were pure uranium (and, by extension, how long it’s been since their manufacture).

 

Shown here is the chemical equation for uranium-238’s decay into thorium-234. The alpha particle that is produced is emitted outwards and lost (and is the main source of the radiation that makes these materials so dangerous). 

According to the Lawrence Livermore National Lab, there are a few conditions that need to be met for proper radiochronometric dating. One of the conditions is that the sample was totally pure at the time of creation. In this case, it means that when the cube was manufactured, it was entirely composed of uranium. Other conditions mentioned are that the decay must be simplifiable to a single consistent chemical equation (such as uranium’s alpha decay here), or that it has remained a closed system since manufacture, so the only thing affecting its composition is the radioactive decay. The final condition mentioned is that, of course, the analysis done must be accurate. 

Radiochronometric dating has many uses beyond just cube identification, however. An extremely similar process is used to determine the age of rocks or other geological artifacts. The technique is slightly different because the time scales are in the hundreds or thousands of millennia rather than a few decades, but the overall principle is the same. When using this technique for dating rocks, fossils, or ancient artifacts, isotopes such as carbon-14 are crucial, as the half-life is in the thousands of years, which means that there is detectable carbon-14 in the sample for millennia. Once there is none of your parent isotope, you can only determine a minimum age. 

Since 1907, the concept of radiochronometric dating has revolutionized our ability to determine the ages of mysterious objects. In a situation like with these uranium cubes, it’s the perfect technique to unravel the mystery of where exactly they came from, and if they really are a relic from Nazi Germany. 

References

 

Boltwood, B. B. “Ultimate Disintegration Products of the Radioactive Elements; Part II, Disintegration

    Products of Uranium.” American Journal of Science, vol. s4-23, no. 134, American Journal of

    Science (AJS), Feb. 1907, pp. 78–88. Crossref, doi:10.2475/ajs.s4-23.134.78. 

 

 

Carroll, Chris. "Tracing the Fallout of Hitler's Nuclear Reactor That Wasn't." Maryland Today, U of

    Maryland, 1 May 2019, today.umd.edu/

    tracing-fallout-hitlers-nuclear-reactor-wasnt-73221c6f-b7aa-4cfd-9402-fa0ccf5e0579. Accessed 14

    Sept. 2021.

 

Jiménez, Jesus. "Did Nazis Produce These Uranium Cubes? Researchers Look for an Answer." The

    New York Times, 10 Sept. 2021, www.nytimes.com/2021/09/10/science/

    nazi-uranium-nuclear-program.html. Accessed 14 Sept. 2021.

Koeth, Timothy, and Miriam Hiebert. “Tracking the Journey of a Uranium Cube.” Physics Today, vol. 72,

    no. 5, AIP Publishing, May 2019, pp. 36–43. Crossref, doi:10.1063/pt.3.4202. 

Blue Jeans and Art

 Posted by Mallory Gehrer

When entering an art exhibit, we as viewers never quite know what we might find. Each piece tells a story, and Rowland Rickett’s “Ai no Keshiki — Indigo Views” dramatic piece tells a story through a color everyone can recognize -- indigo. The Washington Post highlighted this piece earlier this year in May, calling it both “gossamer and imposing” in preparation for the exhibit to open once more. I was struck by this piece as it truly felt like a force of nature, which is what the exhibit it is housed in is called. While indigo is commonly synthesized today, it was once a natural pigment that was extracted by hand. It is the commonplace blue dye of today, most recognizable in blue jeans. When making each fabric square, the artist grew and extracted his own indigo dye and gave each fabric square to a person to use and return to him. It is in this sense that the indigo becomes more familiar to us, like a pair of well worn jeans, and each piece tells the story of the person who once owned it. But to the more curious, they might wonder how this artist extracts and uses his own natural indigo dye.

Historically, indigo dye was extracted from any Indigofera species. The leaves are soaked in water in order to hydrolyze indican into indoxyl, which oxidizes to indigotin (indigo dye). A strong base added to the solution causes indigotin to precipitate out, and the powder can be dried, pressed, and used as a pigment.

 But the process does not end there. To use it for dyeing fabric, indigotin must be reduced first in a reducing solution because indigotin is insoluble in water and alcohol, which makes it practically impossible for fabric to be dipped into a dye bath. This reduced form is called leuco indigo and it has a greenish-white color.

The fabric can then be dipped into the leuco indigo solution, and when it is removed, the leuco indigo oxidizes once more in the air back into indigo blue, creating the all-too familiar blue color we see in today's jeans and other clothes. The variety of blue shades depends on how many times the fabric has been dipped in the dye bath.

Indigo is a unique dye in the sense that it doesn’t need a mordant, which is usually an acid or a salt, in order to bind with the fabric. Common mordants are alum, tannic acid, or sodium chloride, and they chemically bind dyes with fabric through forming coordination complexes with the fabric. Indigo instead directly oxidizes and binds to the fabric, which also allows it to be dipped multiple times to increase the amount of dye on the fabric as shown above.

Perhaps it is this unique combination of traits that made Rowland Rickett decide to grow, harvest, and dye indigo for his exhibit. Not only does indigo bring people together through our jeans and clothes, but it also literally binds closely with the fabric it is affixed to. Each harvest, each dye bath, and each dip of the fabric creates a unique shade of indigo, much like the people he gave the dyed fabric to. It’s this reflection of life, time, and bonding through human interaction and chemistry that allows this exhibit to tell a story that truly is a force of nature.

References

Jenkins, M. (2021, May 11). At the Renwick Gallery, four ARTISTS conjure Mother nature out of FABRIC, metal, glass and paper. The Washington Post. Retrieved September 12, 2021, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/goingoutguide/museums/renwick-gallery-forces -of-nature-art-review/2021/05/10/5e88d48c-ae7b-11eb-b476-c3b287e52a01_stor y.html. 

Chanayath, N., Lhieochaiphant, S., & Phutrakul, S. (1970, January 1). Pigment extraction techniques from the leaves OF Indigofera tinctoria Linn. AND Baphicacanthus cusia Brem. and chemical structure analysis of their major components: Semantic Scholar. Semantic Scholar. Retrieved September 12, 2021, from https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Pigment-extraction-techniques-from-the-l eaves-of-of-Chanayath-Lhieochaiphant/06b452aa6340684d1663c9ef42811621fe c71a33.

Keegan, G. (n.d.). Indigo vat basics. NATURAL DYE RESOURCES, PLANTS, KITS AND WORKSHOPS. Retrieved September 12, 2021, from https://www.grahamkeegan.com/indigo-vat-basics.

Indigofera. FineGardening. (2018, January 24). Retrieved September 12, 2021, from https://www.finegardening.com/genus/indigofera. 

Lactobacillus Won’t Kill Us

    A fresh baked loaf of sourdough bread, a yogurt parfait, some kimchi and rice - all of these delicious foods have something in common. Aside from being delicious, they’re alive! Fermented foods like these ones contain live cultures, sometimes called probiotics, that can help digestion and boost immunity. Tara Parker-Pope at The New York Times gives the “Do’s and Don’ts” of eating and shopping for fermented foods; this article will summarize her findings, and provide some of the chemistry to go along with it.

    Parker-Pope explains that yogurt, kimchi, and sauerkraut, kombucha, and kefir are fermented foods that promote good digestion and immunity. Other foods to look out for at the store include miso, cottage cheese, gouda cheese, and some apple cider vinegar. Parker-Pope explains that not all fermented foods are created the same. The consumer should be looking for a label that says “live cultures,” “contains probiotics,” or “naturally fermented,” in order to receive the benefits of these foods, as manufacturers sometimes remove the probiotics from the foods before they are packaged and hit the market. It is also possible to make many of these foods at home. Online recipes are available and even can be found through The Times website. You can receive the same benefits from these health foods right from your kitchen.  

    These cultures are actually a variety of microorganisms. They come in the form of bacteria, yeast, and mold - all of them capable of the fermentation process. Fermentation occurs when these superbugs break down glucose into lactic acid, or ethanol and carbon dioxide. Which process occurs depends on the organism and the resources available to them. Both processes are outlined below. In alcoholic fermentation, glucose (sugar) is broken down into ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide. In lactic acid fermentation, glucose is broken down into two lactic acid molecules.

C6H12O6 (glucose) → 2 C2H5OH (ethanol) + 2 CO2 (carbon dioxide)

C6H12O6 (glucose) → 2 CH3CHOHCOOH (lactic acid)

    In her article, Parker-Pope keeps to a recent study where yogurt, kimchi, sauerkraut, kombucha, and kefir are the focus. Of these, yogurt, kimchi, sauerkraut, and kefir - a fermented milk drink, all are created via lactic acid fermentation. Kombucha is made by microorganisms that produce ethanol.

    Both processes start with a familiar biochemical pathway, glycolysis. In glycolysis, glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate. This involves a number of enzymes that split the glucose molecule into two, and alter the halves in small steps, sort of like an assembly line. The overall reaction is shown below.

    After glycolysis, NADH needs to be regenerated as NAD+. Producing lactic acid or ethanol  accomplishes this task. In this first instance, acetaldehyde, a commonly occurring biological molecule, acts as an intermediate between pyruvate and ethanol. The conversion of acetaldehyde to ethanol achieves the conversion of NADH back to NAD+. 

Lactate dehydrogenase accomplishes this task similarly in lactic acid fermentation. 

    After looking into the biochemistry of fermentation, it is clear that fermentation is a pretty complex process, but the good impact fermentation has on our foods is a little more straightforward. Probiotics in food outcompete harmful bacteria and produce beneficial nutrients for the body, resulting in overall better health. 

References

Duke, O., Gloyd, J., Meluskey, J., Peralta, J., & Velazquez, F. A. (n.d.). Group 4 Midterm. 

Khan Academy. (n.d.). Fermentation and anaerobic respiration | cellular respiration (article). Khan Academy. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cellular-energetics/cellular-respiration-ap/a/fermentation-and-anaerobic-respiration. 

Lactate Fermentation : Anaerobic fate of Pyruvate. (2020). Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EnX9YzoUOo8. 

Parker-pope, T. (2021, August 19). The DOS and don'ts of fermented foods. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/article/fermented-foods-dos-facts.html?.%3Fmc=aud_dev&ad-keywords=auddevgate&gclid=Cj0KCQjwssyJBhDXARIsAK98ITQSNarxR8kydsZxs2pyYLXWgz413EF8ZauNiAci2iTeNdeLIRBY5NYaAnVpEALw_wcB&gclsrc=aw.ds. 

Glow In The Dark Wasp Nests

Finding a nest at night is a very difficult task for many different living things. The pure darkness of night without shelter can cause a great deal of danger. In an article by Nikk Ogasa titled “Some wasps’ nests glow green under ultraviolet light”, he explains how fluorescent wasp nests may help certain insects find their way home in the dim twilight by containing phosphors. The species that produce this special silk nest is called Polistes brunetus. He states that these glowing nests could be visible from up to 20 meters away. 

The article provides a very important chemical process. The process of luminescence. A phosphor is a substance that exhibits luminescence; it emits light when exposed to radiant energy. When a phosphor is exposed to a form of radiation, the orbital electrons in the molecule are excited to a higher energy level. As the incoming radiation dwindles over time, they slowly return back to their base energy level. As the molecule returns back to its base energy level, the energy being released is in the form of light of a specific color. The image below shows this process.

The light comes from the silk fibers in the nest. In another article by Cara Giaimo, she states that “Bernd Schöllhorn, a chemistry professor at the University of Paris, was wielding his UV flashlight in the Cuc Phuong rainforest south of Hanoi when its beam landed on a paper wasp nest. It shone back so brightly, he said, that he thought another person had turned their own flashlight beam on him.” This shows the true power of the phosphors in the nest.

The chemicals that are involved in these phosphors have a major effect on the luminescence of the nests. Copper activated zinc sulfide and silver activated zinc sulfide are the two most known types of luminescence. Copper activated zinc sulfide emits green light at a wavelength of about 520nm to 530nm. The image below shows an intensity vs wavelength graph of Copper activated zinc sulfide.

                                 

 It can be clearly seen that the peaks of almost all the curves fall into the 520nm to 530nm range. The color that is emitted at this wavelength can be directly compared to the fluorescent wasp nests that are created by the Polistes brunetus, this color is also known as the green “glow in the dark '' color that we all know very well.

The effects of these glow-in-the-dark homes are still being researched. The significance of having a glow-in-the-dark nest can have many possible advantages and even some disadvantages. In the coming years, deeper research will shed light on these aspects of glow-in-the-dark nests.

Sources:      

1. Giaimo, Cara. “The Grooviest Cocoons in the Insect Kingdom.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 2 Sept. 2021, www.nytimes.com/2021/09/02/science/wasps-glowing-nests.html.

2. Ogasa, Nikk. “Some Wasps' Nests Glow Green under Ultraviolet Light.” Science News, 2 Sept. 2021, www.sciencenews.org/article/wasp-nests-glow-green-ultraviolet-light-fluorescence.