How Venomous Caterpillars can be helpful.

 

    In an article recently written by the BBC, a new research study is emerging regarding some venoms that certain types of caterpillars can produce. This study is designed to look into the compounds that make up the venom. When combined they are strong enough to cause severe pain or even death. Some of the compounds that make up the venom could have a positive impact on health and medicine. Currently catepiller venom is researched a lot less than the venom from snakes or scorpions.

    The goal of studying different types of venoms and the compounds they contain to develop anti-venom and medicines. Since these venoms have been in nature for millions of years the compounds that are found in these venoms are specifically ment to target biological functions and processes. The venom that is being researched is the Lonomia venom, this poses a public health risk in certain parts of the world and an anti-venom currently dosent exist.

    The BBC reports that since the research into caterpillar venoms are still limited no new drugs have been developed so far. However research on other venoms have resulted in positive therapies and medicines. Other examples include the medicine Ozempic which comes from the Gila monster. 

Resources

Holmes, Bob. “How Venomous Caterpillars Could Help Humans Design Life-Saving Drugs.” Bbc.com, BBC, 20 Jan. 2025, www.bbc.com/future/article/20250117-how-venomous-caterpillars-could-help-humans-design-life-saving-drugs.

Is Frankenstein deserving of its subtitle?

 The Prometheus story is about the titular Prometheus stealing fire from the gods, and teaching humanity how to create fire and civilization. For this, Zeus punished him, even though Prometheus’s intentions were benevolent. With that said, is it similar enough to Mary Shelley’s novel for Frankenstein’s subtitle to reference it? And are there similarities to Serizawa’s story in Godzilla? In Frankenstein, Victor was motivated to create the monster by pure ambition, wanting to make the discovery without thinking about the potential consequences, and ultimately, his actions directly backfire on him as his neglect of his creation due to its unsettling appearance lead it to kill his brother, his fiancée/adopted sister, and because of Victor chasing after him in the arctic, Victor himself, followed by the monster burning himself alive to eliminate his remains so nobody like Victor can try and recreate the experiment with zero foresight. The similarities between Victor and Prometheus are limited to going against God and being punished for it, but while Prometheus wanted the best for humanity, but Victor wasn’t thinking about the outcome, he only thought about himself, and ran from consequences. Prometheus’s story is actually more like Serizawa’s. Serizawa created the oxygen destroyer, but he knew that humanity wasn’t ready for it yet, so he worked on it in secret, so that one day, when humanity isn’t itching to destroy itself, he can reveal it, and use it to generate energy to power the world, but when he was forced to reveal it to stop Godzilla, he knew the world would force him to make weapons out of the oxygen destroyer, so he destroyed his research and died with the king of the monsters. He created something that could benefit humanity, but circumstances lead to his punishment for his knowledge. Much more analogous to Prometheus in my opinion.

"Radical" Solutions: A New Development in Cancer Treatment

    One of the most important areas of scientific research is cancer treatment and therapies. Despite significant advancements, cancer remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide, primarily due to its complex nature and the unique challenges it presents in medicine. The article "Breast cancer treatment advances with light-activated ‘smart bomb’" from ScienceDaily highlights a promising development in cancer treatment. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a method that uses light-sensitive chemicals to target cancer cells. These chemicals, when exposed to light, generate reactive oxygen molecules (including oxygen radicals) that destroy the cancer cells. Light-sensitive chemicals are substances that undergo chemical changes, such as alterations in their molecular structure, when exposed to light. However, traditional PDT has limitations, including extended light sensitivity, limited ability to penetrate tissues, and unintended toxicity, which can hinder full tumor removal and raise the likelihood of recurrence. 

Image showing the stages of PDT

     To address these challenges, researchers from the University of California, Riverside (UCR) and Michigan State University (MSU) developed a new approach using cyanine-carborane salts. These salts, when introduced into the body, are absorbed preferentially by cancer cells. The treatment involves shining light on the patient, which activates the chemicals and triggers the production of reactive oxygen species to destroy the cancer cells, leaving healthy tissue unaffected. Unlike traditional PDT agents, the cyanine-carborane salts specifically target cancer cells by targeting the overexpression of OATPs (Organic Anion Transporting Polypeptides), proteins that are found at higher levels in the membranes of cancer cells compared to healthy cells. Traditional PDT is also limited by the fact that current FDA-approved chemicals tend to stay in the body for extended periods. As a result, patients must stay in the dark for several months, as even minimal light exposure can cause blistering and burns. The cyanine-carborane salts help address this issue by being cleared from the body more rapidly, resulting in a quicker recovery time. Recent tests in mice have shown that this approach led to the complete eradication of metastatic breast cancer tumors. The researchers are excited to continue expanding their studies, with hopes to apply this method to treat other types of cancer. 

 Citations 

 University of California - Riverside. "Breast cancer treatment advances with light-activated 'smart bomb'." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 11 February 2025. 

 A. Roshanzadeh, H. C. D. Medeiros, C. K. Herrera, C. Malhado, A. W. Tomich, S. P. Fisher, S. O. Lovera, M. Bates, V. Lavallo, R. R. Lunt, S. Y. Lunt, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2025, e202419759.

https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202419759 https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/types/photodynamic-therapy

Carbon Removal in the Oceans: A Climate Solution at What Cost?

Robert Izett prepared to gather water column samples from the ocean floor in Halifax Harbour.

    A recent article by the New York Times poses an interesting solution to global warming called alkalinity enhancement. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere warms the earth through the greenhouse effect. In the presence of water, carbon dioxide can dissolve forming stable bicarbonate and removing its contribution to atmospheric heating. It is through this process that one-third of the 1.7 trillion tons of carbon dioxide that humans have pumped into the atmosphere since the industrial age has been naturally removed by the oceans. Alkalinity enhancement involves adding limestone, magnesium oxide or other alkaline substances to rivers, oceans, or other bodies of water to enhance the water’s ability to “soak up” CO2. Could alkalinity enhancement be the solution to the global warming crisis?

    Alkalinity enhancement has already been used for purposes other than carbon capture and with definitive success. Acid rain resulting from industrial pollution in the 1970s and ‘80s poisoned lakes and streams around the world, severely harming fish populations. Some of the hardest hit countries such as Norway, Sweden and Canada began adding limestone to their waterways to restore the pH balance. The project worked and enabled fish populations to recover. 

    Proving the effectiveness of alkalinity enhancement on a larger scale does however present significant challenges. While studies have shown that alkalinity enhancement does work in relatively small bodies of water, it is much harder to prove the same techniques work in the vast oceans where the added alkalinity becomes quickly diluted and/or forever lost in the watery depths. Oceanographer, Jaime Palter at the University of Rhode Island states that “the biggest barrier to ocean alkalinity enhancement is proving that it works.” Despite the massive hurdle, researchers like Dr. Atamanchuk from Dalhousie University remain optimistic. 

    Beyond questions of effectiveness, many experts and environmental groups raise serious concerns about the potential ecological impacts of alkalinity enhancement on marine life. Marine ecologist Lisa Levin cautions that certain types of ocean geoengineering, if tried at scale, are bound to affect deep-sea life. Others share concern over the type of chemicals and their concentrations when being released into the oceans. Sodium hydroxide, for example, is caustic at high concentrations but common soaps and cleaners at lower concentrations. Dr. Subhas, researcher at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, proposes to use lye or 100% sodium hydroxide, but dilute it in freshwater before unloading into the ocean to limit ecological consequences. Marine biologist James Kerry disagrees with the use of sodium hydroxide, comparing the release of 50% sodium hydroxide into the ocean to a “chemical spillage”. 

Sources

Plumer, Brad, and Raymond Zhong. “They’ve Got a Plan to Fight Global Warming. It Could Alter the Oceans.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 23 Sept. 2024, www.nytimes.com/2024/09/23/climate/oceans-rivers-carbon-removal.html.

Pollution power? A new device turns carbon dioxide into fuel

     

Is it possible to turn carbon dioxide into fuel?

    We present another story in our series that focuses on technologies and actions that can slow down climate change, reduce its negative impacts, or help communities adapt to a rapidly changing world. Human activities that release carbon dioxide (CO2), a common greenhouse gas, are contributing to the warming of Earth's atmosphere. The concept of extracting CO2 from the air and storing it has been around for a while, but it's been challenging to implement, especially at an affordable cost. A new system aims to address the problem of CO2 pollution in a different way by chemically converting this climate-warming gas into a fuel.

    On Nov. 15, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge introduced their latest invention in Cell Reports Physical Science.  The MIT system is made up of two components. The first component produces the fuel by transforming airborne CO2 into a molecule called Formate salt. Similar to CO2, Formate contains a carbon atom and two oxygens. It also includes a hydrogen atom, and a Formate salt contains other elements as well. The research team used a variation of Formate salt that contains either sodium or potassium.

                         

       Formate salt                                                 Carbon dioxide        

                   

                                         

        Formate salt contains sodium                           Formate salt contains potassium

    The system's second part involves the utilization of a Formate salt for fueling a fuel cell, which then generates electricity. Typically, most fuel cells operate on hydrogen, which is a flammable gas that requires pipelines and pressurized tanks for transportation. However, Formate salts can also be used to power fuel cells. According to materials scientist Ju Li, who led the development of the new system, Formate salts contain the same amount of energy as hydrogen. Furthermore, Formate offers a few advantages over hydrogen, as it is safer and does not need to be stored at high pressure. The MIT researchers created a fuel cell to experiment with their CO2-derived Formate. Initially, they mixed the salt with water and then introduced the mixture into the fuel cell. Inside the cell, the Formate underwent a chemical reaction, releasing electrons. These electrons flowed from the fuel cell's negative side to its positive side, generating a circuit that resulted in electricity. In their experiment, the flowing electrons or electricity ran for 200 hours.

The role of CO2 in this experiment. 

    The researchers from MIT utilized chemical reactions to convert CO2 gas into a crucial component required to produce their fuel. Initially, they introduced it to an intense alkaline solution, specifically sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also referred to as lye. This led to a chemical change that gave rise to sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), a substance commonly known as baking soda.

    Afterward, an electric charge was applied. This caused a new chemical reaction to occur, which removed an oxygen atom from each molecule of baking soda. As a result, sodium Formate (NaCHO2) was produced. The process was highly efficient, with over 96 percent of the CO2's carbon being converted into this salt. The energy that was needed to remove the oxygen was stored in the chemical bonds of Formate. This energy can be stored for a long time without losing its potential power, according to Li. Later, when Formate is passed through a fuel cell, it can generate electricity. Furthermore, if the electricity used to produce the Formate was generated from solar, wind or hydropower, then the electricity produced by the fuel cell will be an environmentally-friendly form of energy. Li asserts that in order to expand the use of this innovative technology, it is crucial to locate ample geological reservoirs of lye. He is currently examining a form of rock known as alkali basalt (pronounced AL-kuh-lye buh-SALT), which, when combined with water, transforms into lye.

Future fuel

This illustration depicts a house that is powered by CO2. There is a device shown in the front that is capable of converting CO2 molecules, which appear as red-and-white-bubble molecules, into a Formate salt. The Formate appears as blue, red, white, and black bubbles. This salt can be utilized to generate electricity via a fuel cell.

    Kazemifar suggests that the most effective way to address the issue is to "reduce greenhouse gas emissions" by switching to renewable energy sources like wind or solar power. This process is referred to as decarbonization. However, he notes that a comprehensive approach is necessary to combat climate change. He explains that carbon capture technology, such as the one developed by the MIT team, is essential in areas that are difficult to decarbonize, such as steel and cement plants. Additionally, the MIT group believes that combining their new technology with solar and wind power would be advantageous. Unlike traditional batteries that store energy for a few weeks, the Formate fuel can be used to store energy from the summer sun until winter or even longer. Li explains that the possibilities with Formate fuel are endless, as it can be used for generations. Moreover, Li points out that although it may not be as flashy as gold, he can still leave his children a substantial inheritance in the form of 200 tons of Formate.

References

Allen, L. (2024) Pollution Power? A new device turns carbon dioxide into fuel, Science News Explores. Available at: https://www.snexplores.org/article/device-turns-carbon-dioxide-fuel-chemistry.

 

      

Artificial Cells: A Cytoskeleton-key to Genetics

       The ability to change one's DNA is often at the forefront of science fiction as the ultimate form of scientific innovation. The idea of being able to change the genetic makeup of one's self for health, aesthetic, or to push the limits of the human body is enchanting to many. There have been different methods by which this has been attempted with things like CRISPR/Cas9 wherein the cells and DNA are directly targeted and edited. However, research done by a group from UNC(University of North Carolina) and published in "Nature Chemistry" has found a way to make artificial cells that look and act like normal human cells.

    The group managed to achieve this by creating an artificial cytoskeleton through lab-made proteins and new "programmable peptide-DNA nanotechnology" using DNA as a structure for the cytoskeleton to bind peptides together with actin connectors/crosslinkers. These new cells are now more easily programmable than natural ones and more resilient, being able to be stable even in degrees up to 122°F, meaning they are capable of being made to handle far more specific functions than those in the body. Ronit Freeman who was a lead on the team said that their cells are "made to task" rather than "made to last" implying that their cells would adapt to new tasks when they finish their first. 

   

     The end goal of this sort of research is to be able to make materials or even the human body itself "surpass biology". This could help both people and other living organisms live in more hostile environments like deserts, volcanic regions, and potentially other planets. The current issues of these cells are that they are simpler than natural cells and more resistant to external change which can hurt adaptability that isn't pre-programmed. Another potentially scary thought is how far would these cells go to changing the body while unregulated, another fear brought up in many sci-fi stories. I think that this alongside other forms of cell and DNA editing is a fantastic leap to a new age of the potential of human evolution against the "Great Filter Theory" in the future.

Sources:

- Chapel Hill, University of UNC. “Researchers Create Artificial Cells That Act like Living Cells.” Phys.Org, Science X, 23 Apr. 2024, phys.org/news/2024-04-artificial-cells.html.

- Daly, Margaret L., et al. “Designer Peptide–DNA Cytoskeletons Regulate the Function of Synthetic Cells.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, 23 Apr. 2024, www.nature.com/articles/s41557-024-01509-w#Abs1.

-Dhali, Dipa. “Cytoskeleton: Definition, Structure, Components, & Function.” Science Facts, 17 Feb. 2023, www.sciencefacts.net/cytoskeleton.html.

    

What Do Chemicals In Plastics Impact Your Endocrine System

    This is a recent news article from Scientific American. It talks about the impact of human endocrine system caused by chemicals in the plastics called Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that people daily used or can easily access or get exposed to. 

    These EDCs can leach out of plastic water bottles or plastic containers and enter the human body causing damage to the endocrine system before entering the ecosystem. 

    By studying the effects of these chemicals on animals and lab-cultured cells, as well as human epidemiology, scientists have found that these EDCs can be linked to unhealthy humans. However, the pace of these research efforts is nowhere near the rate at which new chemical plastics are created and replaced. Of the more than 16,000 chemicals used in plastics, more than 1,000 are defined as EDCs, but only a small percentage are regulated, and the rest are still used in the production of plastics.

    So what exactly do EDCs entail? Many familiar chemical compounds belong to the EDCs family. For example, bisphenol, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), commonly known as "permanent" chemicals, and phthalates, all belong to the EDCs family. 

Biphenol A 

Phthalates

    If use their common names, they may be very familiar; phthalates are known as plasticizers to increase the flexibility and durability of plastics, while PFOS has non-stick properties. It is used in snack wrappers to prevent grease. Last month, the U.S. Food Safety Administration announced canceling the use of all packing bags containing PFOS. Bisphenol, on the other hand, is a chemical compound widely used in the lining of beverage bottles, as well as in some polyester fibers used to make clothing. Most EDCs are fat-soluble, and EDCs in clothing can dissolve in sweat and oil secreted by the human body, which can be absorbed by the human skin and cause harm to the human body. EDCs in food wrappers are more likely to dissolve in the oils and fats of food and be consumed by people. More frighteningly, the structure of these EDCs is similar to that of many human hormones, such as thyroid hormones, testosterone, estrogen, etc. When EDCs enter the body, they can cause disruption of the endocrine system.

    So how does EDC cause endocrine system disruption? The body's endocrine system is directed by the brain to cause the endocrine glands to release precise amounts of specific hormones at precise times to reach receptors throughout the body. This is the mystery of the human body. However, EDC disrupts this normal function in the form of mimicry, blocking (similar to the function of inhibitors). 

    Various activities of the human body are precisely regulated by the endocrine system, and when the wrong signals are transmitted, a series of serious and wide-ranging effects are likely to be triggered. Prof. Fernandez's experiments have shown that bisphenol can have an effect on fertility in rats, with rats exposed to bisphenol developing ovarian cysts. It was also found that bisphenol, which is similar in structure to oestrogen, can cause human breast cells to proliferate. This in turn increases the probability of getting breast cancer. Phthalate intake, on the other hand, has been found linked to insulin secretion and getting diabetes. Not only that, but BPA intake has been found to be passed on to infants through the mother-infant relationship, breastfeeding. Causing damage to infants.

    Reinecke, for his part, argues that moving beyond regulation on a chemical-by-chemical basis is necessary. She said that countries need to start imposing bulk bans on structurally similar chemicals in order to accelerate restrictions on chemicals to protect human health. While Seewoo said there needs to be rigorous safety testing of chemicals in plastics before they are introduced into consumer products. But the problem is not one that individuals can change, though people can still take steps to minimize exposure. For example, don't heat food in plastic, avoid buying food that is served in plastic, and so on.

    

Resources:

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-chemicals-in-plastics-impact-your-endocrine-system/

https://www.endocrine.org/patient-engagement/endocrine-library/edcs